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MOTION STUDY

A METHOD FOR INCREASING THE

EFFICIENCY OF THE

WORKMAN

BY
FRANK B. GILBRETH

MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS

WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY

ROBERT THURSTON KENT

EDITOR OF " INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING"

NEW YORK:
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY

23 MURRAY AND 27 WARREN STS.
191 1

NEW YORK

Stanhope ipress

F. H. GILSON COMPANY
BOSTON, U.S.A.

PREFACE

THE phrase "Motion Study" explains itself.

The aim of motion study is to find and perpetuate the
scheme of perfection. There are three stages in this
study :

1. Discovering and classifying the best practice.

2. Deducing the laws.

3. Applying the laws to standardize practice, either for
the purpose of increasing output or decreasing hours of
labor, or both.

Standardizing the trades is the world's most important
work to-day, and motion study is the first factor in that
work.

In presenting this material I have attempted to show
the necessity for Motion Study and the savings that are
possible by the application of its underlying principles.

Thanks are due to the Myron C. Clark Publishing
Company and to Industrial Engineering for permission to
use the cuts that illustrate this book.

FRANK B. GILBRETH.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION xi-xxiii

CHAPTER I.

DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL OUTLINE OF MOTION STUDY.. 1-9

1. NECESSITY FOR MOTION STUDY i

2. PLACE OF MOTION STUDY IN SCIENTIFIC MANAGE-

MENT 3

3. VAST FIELD FOR MOTION STUDY 5

4. PRESENT STAGE OF MOTION STUDY 5

5. THE VARIABLES 6

CHAPTER II.
VARIABLES OF THE WORKER 10-42

1. ANATOMY 10

2. BRAWN 13

3. CONTENTMENT 14

4. CREED 15

5. EARNING POWER 16

6. EXPERIENCE 19

7. FATIGUE 23

8. HABITS 32

9. HEALTH 33

10. MODE OF LIVING 35

11. NUTRITION 35

12. SIZE 36

13. SKILL 36

14. TEMPERAMENT 38

15. TRAINING 40

CHAPTER III.

VARIABLES OF THE SURROUNDINGS 43-64

1. APPLIANCES 43

2. CLOTHES 45

3. COLOR 46

4. ENTERTAINMENT 48

5. HEATING 49

6. LIGHTING 50

vii

Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

VARIABLES OF THE SURROUNDINGS (Continued).

7. QUALITY or MATERIAL 52

8. REWARDS AND PENALTIES 53

9. SIZE or UNIT MOVED 54

10. SPECIAL FATIGUE-ELIMINATING DEVICES 56

11. SURROUNDINGS 58

12. TOOLS 59

13. UNION RULES 62

14. WEIGHT OF UNIT MOVED 63

CHAPTER IV.
VARIABLES OF THE MOTION 65-85

1. ACCELERATION 65

2. AUTOMATICITY 67

3. COMBINATION WITH OTHER MOTIONS 69

4. COST 70

5. DIRECTION 74

6. EFFECTIVENESS 76

7. FOOT-POUNDS OF WORK ACCOMPLISHED 76

8. INERTIA AND MOMENTUM OVERCOME 77

9. LENGTH 79

10. NECESSITY 81

11. PATH ; 82

12. PLAY FOR POSITION 83

13. SPEED - 84

CHAPTER V.
PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF MOTION STUDY 86-109

1. WORK ACCOMPLISHED 86

2. MAGNITUDE OF WORK TO BE DONE 86

3. VALUE OF CHARTS 87

4. FUTURE WORK IN STANDARDIZING THE TRADES .... 94

5. THE FIRST STEPS 102

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG. PAGE

1. Non-stooping Scaffold 1 1

2. Non-stooping Scaffold, "Pack-on-the-wall" Method 12

3. Gravity Conveyor for Unloading Brick without Stooping 14

4. Right Way to Pick up Brick from Upper Tier on the Packet ... 17

5. Wrong Way to Pick up Brick from Upper Tier on the Packet ... 18

6. Right Way to Pick up Brick from the Lower Tier on the Packet. 19

7. Wrong Way to Pick up Brick from the Lower Tier on the Packet. 20

8. The Non-stooping Scaffold for Handling Packs of Brick with the

Fewest and Shortest Motions 21

9. The Usual Method of Providing the Bricklayer with Material. . . 22

10. Standard Practice of Providing Bricklayers with Materials 26

n. Standard Practice of Providing Bricklayers with Materials 27

12. Standard Practice for Providing Bricklayers with Materials 28

13. Pick-and-dip Method of Bricklaying on the Interior or Filling

Tiers 30

14. String-Mortar Method of Bricklaying on the Interior or Filling

Tiers 31

15. Correct Sequence of Courses and Tiers Laid from Stooping Scaf-

fold 38

1 6. Correct Sequence of Courses and Tiers Laid from the Non-stooping

Scaffold ^ 39

17. Two-horse Carts with Horses Changed from Empty to Full Carts. 55

18. Gravity Conveyors for Transporting Packs to Carts 55

19. The Fountain Trowel in Position for Conveying Mortar 56

20. The Trucket for Carrying Twelve Packs 57

21. The Trucket for Storing Packs 75

22. The Fountain Trowel in Position for Pouring Mortar 76

23. Common Type of Trestle Horse Staging 79

24 to 42. Motion Study Pictures of Bricklaying 103-106

43. "Pack-on-the-wall" Method, Building Exterior Face Tiers 108

44. " Pack-on-the-wall" Method, Building the Interior Face and Fill-

ing Tiers 109

INTRODUCTION

WHEN the editor of a live journal hears of some new
development in the field to which his paper caters, he is
neglecting his duty if he does not make every possible
effort to secure a powerful article by the highest author-
ity on that development for his readers. Some months
before " Motion Study" first appeared in the columns of
Industrial Engineering, we heard that Mr. Gilbreth had,
by some method or other, made wonderful records in the
construction of buildings and other engineering works.
We were curious to know how this had been accomplished,
and sought an interview. We then learned that for
years Mr. Gilbreth had been studying the actions of his
workmen, the conditions surrounding their work, and all
the other variables which go to help or hinder them in the
actual construction work. He had paid particular atten-
tion to the motions made by a given man, say a brick-
layer, in getting a brick from the pile made by the tenders
to its final resting place in the wall. He had discovered
how the number of these motions could be cut down, by
having the brick brought to the bricklayer in a different
way than usual, by placing them in a somewhat more
convenient position, by arranging the scaffolding in an
improved manner, and by various other little changes,

Xll INTRODUCTION

some of them slight in themselves, but all together totaling
an immense saving of time and motions.

This appealed to us as forming the basis of a good "story/'
and we immediately made arrangements with Mr. Gilbreth
to prepare for Industrial Engineering a serial article show-
ing the importance of these studies in the improvement
of working conditions in all trades, and how they bene-
fited both employer and workman. When the manu-
script of " Motion Study" was first placed in the writer's
hands, as editor, he examined it with considerable interest,
but without any idea of the immense importance of what
he had done in securing this contribution. It was then
merely another good story for the paper. It seemed to
him a trifle unfortunate, however, that the author had
chosen practically all of his illustrations from the brick-
laying trade. On rereading the article more carefully it
was apparent that these illustrations were of secondary
importance and had been drawn from a trade with which
every one was familiar and which any one could observe,
also from one so old that it hardly seemed possible that it
could be improved. It therefore became evident that the
principles laid down were applicable to every trade and
industry. This idea was confirmed later, when " Motion
Study" appeared in serial form.

We were a trifle disappointed, at first, that it attracted
less attention than we anticipated. We thought that
perhaps we were somewhat in advance of our time, and
that the public was not yet prepared for so long a step

INTRODUCTION Xlii

forward. It now appears, however, that the apparent
lack of interest was due to the fact that we had presented
a subject so entirely new that it required some little time
for people to comprehend its importance and to realize
its value. By the time the third installment had appeared,
requests for the earlier installments were flowing in steadily,
and since its completion many firms have sent for all the
issues of the paper containing it. To show the wide ap-
plication possible of the principles laid down in " Motion
Study," requests for the complete series have come to us
from the iron and steel industry, from the shoe manu-
facturing industry, from book-printing and book-binding
establishments, and many other industries. It was when
we began to receive these requests that we realized that
we had done something worth while, and had published an
article which was of stupendous value, not to one trade
or group of trades, but to the whole world.

The writer, in handling the successive installments of
" Motion Study," became more and more impressed with
the possibilities which were involved in it. He resolved to
apply some of these principles in his own office. Natu-
rally the first point of attack is the one where the greatest
saving can be accomplished. In our case, it happened to
be the outgoing mail. A publication has, particularly in
its circulation department, an amount of outgoing mail
entirely out of proportion to the volume of business trans-
acted by it, when measured by the standard of other
industries. A circulation campaign will involve the send-

xiv INTRODUCTION

ing out of perhaps twenty thousand duplicate letters, each
with one or more inclosures. Evidently the saving of but
one motion on each letter would, in the aggregate, show
an immense saving of time. Formerly the girls folding and
sealing the letters were permitted to arrange the work
to suit themselves. A short observation of their work
showed that there was much room for improvement.
The writer studied the question for a short time and made
several experiments to determine in just what order each
movement should be made to fold the letter, pick up its
inclosure, pick "up the envelope, and insert the letter and
inclosure in the envelope. The first attempt was crude,
but immediately doubled the output of the girl. Further
study resulted in improvements which not only eliminated
motions, but shortened the distance which the hands had
to move in those that remained. The final result was an
arrangement of pieces and a sequence of motions by which
each hand, at the completion of one motion, was in position
immediately to begin the next. The final motion, that of
throwing the filled envelope on the pile, was eliminated
entirely by having a large basket on the floor, directly
under the point where the letter was inserted in the en-
velope. The girl simply let go of the envelope, and it
fell into the basket, gravity doing the work formerly done
by the girl. The output under the new conditions was
about four times that obtained when the girls were allowed
to do the work their own way.

Several other routine jobs in the office were handled in

INTRODUCTION XV

the same way, with a marked improvement in each case.
By this time the office force had become interested and
were studying motions on their own account, and improv-
ing methods of doing work without any suggestion from
the writer. One of the girls devised a method of stamping
envelopes which enabled her to work at a speed of between
one hundred and one hundred and twenty envelopes per
minute. She piled the letters on edge in a long pile, the
addressed side facing her. The stamps were torn in strips,
crosswise of the sheet, so that the stamps were side by side
instead of one above the other. She fastened to the fore-
finger of her right hand a small wet sponge, and taking a
strip of stamps in that hand, fed them across the sponge,
using her thumb to move the strip, and to guide the stamp
into place on the corner of the envelope. The left hand
drew the stamped envelope forward from the pile, the
thumb of the left hand giving the necessary pressure to
the stamp while it was being drawn forward, to assure its
being firmly affixed to the envelope. The motion of draw-
ing the envelope forward tore the stamp from the strip, and
the operation was complete. The work was done with
marvelous rapidity, yet the girl hardly seemed to make
any motions, except to pull the envelopes forward, and to
reach for strips of stamps. We do not know just what
processes were followed in developing the method, as the
girl studied it out and put it in operation while the writer
was taking a vacation.

These incidents, and others, convinced us that there was

XVI INTRODUCTION

much more to motion study than appeared from a hasty
survey of the subject. We then began to look around
in earnest, to discover what had been done in this line
in other trades than those with which Mr. Gilbreth
was familiar. We found that practically nothing had
been done in a systematic, scientific manner, except in
certain shops where scientific management had been
installed.

We further found, that even in these shops motion study
had not been made in the scientific manner outlined in
Mr. Gilbreth's articles. It was a by-product, an incident
in the installation of scientific management, rather than
a science of itself. Nevertheless, even treated as an inci-
dental branch of management it had conferred much bene-
fit on those shops in which it had been made. We shall
refer to this later.

The reduction of the number of motions can be accom-
plished in two radically different ways: (i) By analyzing
every step of a process, as outlined by Mr. Gilbreth,
studying the motions made, and improving or eliminating
them as a result of the analysis, or by devising an entirely
new way of accomplishing the same object. (2) By sub-
stituting a device which is an improvement over that
formerly used, but which required a greater number of
motions to operate it, or by the substitution of new motions
or processes as they occur to the observer, rather than by
any systematic study of the subject. This last method
is the one most generally used. It might be termed the

INTRODUCTION xvil

" accidental" method, as contrasted with the scientific
one developed by Mr. Gilbreth.

An example of this latter kind of motion study is familiar
to every man, woman, or child who lives in even a moder-
ate-sized city. In the city fire departments much thought
has been expended on the problem of enabling the firemen
to start out to a fire in the shortest possible time after the
alarm has been received. At first the horses stood in
their stalls with their harness on them. The hitching of
the horses required the fastening of several buckles. Some
one then invented the drop harness, now universally used,
and the number of motions in hitching a horse was reduced
to three, — snapping the collar round his neck, and the
fastening of the two reins to his bridle by bit snaps.
Later the horses were moved from the rear of the house to
a point alongside the engine, so that they had only to travel
a matter of a few feet to be in position under the harness.
Some one else then invented a device which released the
horses from their stalls automatically with the sounding
of the alarm on the fire-house gong, effecting a further
saving in time and motion. Instead of having the firemen
descend stairs from their sleeping quarters, the sliding
pole was thought of, which eliminated a great number of
individual motions and saved many seconds. And so
on, as one device after another was perfected which saved
motions, and thereby time, it was adopted, until now the
"motion efficiency" in a fire house is one hundred per cent.
It is useless to improve it further, because it has reached a

xvill INTRODUCTION

point where the company is ready to start to a fire before
it has received the number of the box. The men and
horses do their part in less time than the electric telegraph
transmits the complete signal. Yet to attain this efficiency
has required a period of perhaps thirty years. The subject
was not studied in a scientific manner.

Turning now to the machine shop, let us see what mo-
tion study means there. In an editorial in Industrial Engi-
neering, in August, 1910, we said:

Before a task can be set intelligently it is necessary
to know just what can be accomplished by the best type
of workman. This usually involves a time study of the
job under consideration. The time study is more than
putting a clerk with a stop watch alongside the workman,
with instructions to see how long it takes him to do the
job. A proper time study requires that a certain piece
of work be divided into its component operations and that
each operation be studied separately, and also in conjunc-
tion with other operations to which it is related. The time
of performing these operations is recorded not once, but
many times, until a fair average has been determined. The
results are then analyzed to see if the time required can be
cut down. Usually it will be found that it can. A single
instance will suffice for illustration.

In a certain shop with which we are familiar a piece
had to have several holes of different sizes drilled in it,
a jig being provided to locate the holes. The drills and
the sockets for them were given to the workman in a tote

INTRODUCTION xix

box. The time study of this job revealed several inter-
esting facts. First, after the piece was drilled the machine
was stopped, and time was lost while the workman removed
the piece from the jig and substituted a new one. This
was remedied by providing a second jig in which the piece
was placed while another piece was being drilled in the first
jig, the finished one being removed after the second jig had
been placed in the machine and drilling started. It was
also found that the workman lost considerable time hunt-
ing in the tote box for his drill, and for the socket to fit it.
The result was the provision of a socket for each drill,
which was fitted to it in the tool room, and the further
provision of a tray alongside the machine on which the
man could lay out his drills in the order in which they
were to be used. He was thereby enabled to pick up the
correct drill without losing any time hunting for it. It
was also found that it took considerable time to verify the
size of the drill and socket, due to the figures stamped
on the drill by the manufacturer being so small as to
require the workman to go to the light to hunt for the
figures. Consequently, numbers one-half inch high were
placed on the drills, so that they could be seen in almost any
light. To do this it was necessary to grind a flat spot on
the drill to accommodate the large-size figures. This had
the desirable but unsought for result of enabling the work-
man to locate the figures by the sense of touch, and con-
sequently no time was lost in turning the drill round and
round to search for the size.

XX . INTRODUCTION

The above changes, simple in themselves, resulted in
an increase in output on this particular job of about four
times that usually obtained before the time study was
made.

The incident related above is one that the writer dis-
covered after he began to investigate motion study in other
lines than those discussed by Mr. Gilbreth. It, too, is
typical of the " accidental" method. It is sufficient to
show, however, what scientific motion study could do if
applied to an entire industry.

The following letter from Mr. H. L. Gantt to the writer
illustrates how little people, even the most expert in their
line, know about the most economical way of doing work:

Editor Industrial Engineering:

The series of articles on " Motion Study" by Frank B.
Gilbreth are particularly valuable as illustrating what a
man, having an analytical mind and a quick comprehen-
sion of details, can accomplish. They also illustrate the
fact that in order to accomplish such results the subject
must be given a great deal of study. The articles are
unique in that they describe for the first time the detailed
application to an art of principles which have often been
described in more general terms.

On the other hand, the man who becomes interested in
making this kind of a study will, if he has the right kind
of mind, become so fascinated by it that it is on his mind
almost all the time. The subject opens up so many
possibilities that those men who can appreciate it are
simply carried away. While in London with the American

INTRODUCTION XXI

Society of Mechanical Engineers, Mr. Gilbreth cornered
an old friend of his and explained to him the wonderful
results that could be accomplished by motion study. He
declared that he did not care what the work was, he
would be able to shorten the time usually required, pro-
vided that nobody had previously applied the principles
of motion study to the work.

A few days before, this friend had been at the Japanese-
British Exposition and had seen there a girl putting papers
on boxes of shoe polish at a wonderful speed. Without
saying what he had in mind, Mr. Gilbreth's friend invited
him to visit the exposition, and in a most casual way led
him to the stand where the girl was doing this remarkable
work, with the feeling that here at least was an operation
which could not be improved upon.

No sooner had Mr. Gilbreth spied this phenomenal work
than out came his stop watch, and he timed accurately
how long it took the girl to do twenty-four boxes. The
time was forty seconds. When he had obtained this in-
formation he told the girl that she was not doing the work
right. She, of course, was greatly incensed that a man
from the audience should presume to criticize what she
was doing, when she was acknowledged to be the most
skillful girl that had ever done that work. He had ob-
served that while all her motions were made with great
rapidity, about half of them would be unnecessary if she
arranged her work a little differently. He has a very per-
suasive way, and although the girl was quite irritated by
his remark, she consented to listen to his suggestion that
he could show her how to do the work more rapidly. In-
asmuch as she was on piece work the prospect of larger
earnings induced her to try his suggestion. The first

XX11 INTRODUCTION

time she tried to do as he directed she did twenty-four
boxes in twenty-six seconds; the second time she tried it
she did it in twenty seconds. She was not working any
harder, only making fewer motions.

This account the writer heard in Manchester, England,
from the man himself who had put up the job on Mr.
Gilbreth, and it is safe to say that this man is now about
as firm a believer in motion study as Mr. Gilbreth is.

H. L. GANTT.
NEW YORK, Oct. i, 1910.

Enough has been said, and sufficient instances drawn
from widely diversified trades have been given, to show
that motion study is a problem of the most vital importance
to the world. Some day an intelligent nation will awake
to the fact that by scientifically studying the motions in
its trades it will obtain the industrial supremacy of the
world. We hope that that nation will be the United
States. Already rated as the most progressive nation the
world has ever seen, it will take a position far in advance
of all, once it begins to give its earnest attention to this
subject. Certain it is, that if we do not some other people
will, and our boasted progress and supremacy will then be
but a memory.

When one looks about him and sees the wasted time and
money in every walk of life from useless motions, the mind
becomes weary in contemplating the magnitude of the task.
The bricklayer, the carpenter, the machinist, the shoveller,
the clerk, even the editor in writing with his pen, make

INTRODUCTION xxiii

twenty motions where one would suffice. The actual
wealth of the nation is in what it takes from the ground in
the shape of crops or minerals plus the value added to
these products by processes of manufacture. If by re-
ducing the number of motions in any of these processes
we can increase many fold the output of the worker, we
have increased by that amount the wealth of the world;
we have taken a long step in bringing the cost of living
to a point where it will no longer be a burden to all but
the very wealthy; and we have benefited mankind in
untold ways.

Words fail the writer when he tries to express his appre-
ciation of what Mr. Gilbreth has done in blazing a trail
for future investigators. The work he outlines of investi-
gating and reclassifying the trades by means of motion
study is worthy of the brains of the most scientific investi-
gators; it is worthy of the endowments of a Rockefeller
or a Carnegie; it is worthy of the best efforts of the national
government. Properly carried to its logical conclusion
it would form the mightiest tool for the conservation of
resources that the country could have. Our scientists
could engage in no more important work than this.

ROBERT THURSTON KENT,

Editor Industrial Engineering.

MOTION STUDY

CHAPTER I

DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL OUTLINE OF
MOTION STUDY

NECESSITY FOR MOTION STUDY

PROFESSOR Nathaniel Southgate Shaler astounded the _
world when he called attention to the tremendous waste
caused by the rain washing the fertile soil of the plowed
ground to the brooks, to the rivers, and to the seas, there
to be lost forever.

This waste is going on in the whole civilized world, and j
especially in our country. Professor Shaler's book, "Man
and the Earth, "'was the real prime cause of the congress
that met in Washington for the conservation of our natural
resources. While Professor Shaler's book was right, and
while the waste from the soil washing to the sea is a slow
but sure national calamity, it is negligible compared with
the loss each year due to wasteful motions made by the
workers of our country. In fact, if the workers of this
country were taught the possible economies of motion
study, there would be a saving in labor beside which the
cost of building and operating tremendous settling basins,
and the transporting of this fertile soil back to the land

2 MOTION STUDY

from whence it came'/ would be insignificant. Besides,
there would still be a surplus of labor more than large
enough to develop every water power in the country, and
build and maintain enough wind engines to supply the
heat, light, and power wants of mankind.

There is no waste of any kind in the world that equals
the waste from needless, ill-directed, and ineffective mo-
tions. When one realizes that in such a trade as brick-

'-"v

laying alone, the motions now adopted after careful study
have already cut down the bricklayer's work more than
two-thirds, it is possible to realize the amount of energy
that is wasted by the workers of this country.

The census of 1900 showed 29,287,070 persons, ten years
of age and over, as engaged in gainful occupations. There
is no reason for not cutting down the waste motions in the
vocations of the other almost half (49.7 per cent) of the
population ten years of age and upward who do not engage
in gainful occupations. The housekeepers, students, etc.,
on this list have as much need for motion saving as any
one else, — though possibly the direct saving to the country
would not be so great. But taking the case of the nearly
thirty million workers cited above, it would be a conserva-
tive estimate that would call half their motions utterly
wasted.

As for the various ways in which this waste might be
utilized, that is a question which would be answered differ-
ently by each group of people to whom it might be put.

By motion study the earning capacity of the workman

DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL OUTLINE 3

can surely be more than doubled. Wherever motion study
has been applied, the workman's output has been doubled.
This will mean for every worker either more wages or more
leisure.

But the most advisable way to utilize this gain is not
a question which concerns us now. We have not yet
reached the stage where the solving of that problem be-
comes a necessity — far from it ! Our duty is to study the
motions and to reduce them as rapidly as possible to
standard sets of least in number, least in fatigue, yet most
effective motions. This has not been done perfectly as
yet for any branch of the industries. In fact, so far as
we know, it has not, before this time, been scientifically
attempted. It is this work, and the method of attack for
undertaking it, which it is the aim of this book to explain.

PLACE OF MOTION STUDY IN SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

Motion study as herein shown has a definite place in
the evolution of scientific management not wholly appre-
ciated by the casual reader,

Its value in cost reducing cannot be overestimated, and
its usefulness in all three types of management — Military,
or driver; Interim, or transitory; and Ultimate, or func-
tional — is constant.

In increasing output by selecting and teaching each
workman the best known method of performing his work,
motion economy is all important. Through it, alone, when

4 MOTION STUDY

applied to unsystematized work, the output can be more
than doubled, with no increase in cost.

When the Interim system takes up the work of stand-
ardizing the operations performed, motion study enables
the time-study men to limit their work to the study of
correct methods only. This is an immense saving in time,
labor, and costs, as the methods studied comply, as nearly
as is at that stage possible, with the standard methods that
will be synthetically constructed after the time study has
taken place.

Even when Ultimate system has finally been installed,
and the scientifically timed elements are ready and at hand
to be used by the instruction card man in determining the
tasks, or schedules, the results of motion study serve as a
collection of best methods of performing work that can
be quickly and economically incorporated into instruction
cards.

Motion study, as a means of increasing output under
the military type of management, has consciously proved
its usefulness on the work for the past twenty-five years.
Its value as a permanent element for standardizing work
and its important place in scientific management have
been appreciated only since observing its standing among
the laws of management given to the world by Mr. Fred-
erick W. Taylor, that great conservator of scientific in-
vestigation, who has done more than all others toward
reducing the problem of management to an exact science.

DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL OUTLINE 5

VAST FIELD FOR MOTION STUDY

Now tremendous savings are possible in the work of
everybody, — they are not for one class, they are not
for the trades only; they are for the offices, the schools,
the colleges, the stores, the households, and the farms.
But the possibilities of benefits from motion study in the
trades are particularly striking, because all trades, even at
their present best, are badly bungled.

At first glance the problem of motion study seems an
easy one. After careful investigation it is apt to seem too
difficult and too large to attack. There is this to be said
to encourage the student, however:

1. Study of one trade will aid in finding the result for
all trades.

2. Work once done need never be done again. The
final results will be standards.

PRESENT STAGE OF MOTION STUDY
We stand at present in the first stage of motion study,
i.e., the stage of discovering and classifying the best prac-
tice. This is the stage of analysis.

The following are the steps to be taken in the analysis:

1. Reduce present practice to writing.

2. Enumerate motions used,

3. Enumerate variables which affect each motion.

4. Reduce best practice to writing.

5. Enumerate motions used.

6. Enumerate variables which affect each motion.

0 MOTION STUDY

VARIABLES

Every element that makes up or affects the amount of
work that the worker is able to turn out must be con-
sidered separately; but the variables which must be
studied in analyzing any motion, group themselves natu-
rally into some such divisions as the following:

I. Variables of the Worker.

1 . Anatomy.

2. Brawn.

3. Contentment.

4. Creed.

5. Earning Power.

6. Experience.

7. Fatigue.

8. Habits.

9. Health.

10. Mode of living.

11. Nutrition.

12. Size.

13. Skill.

14. Temperament.

15. Training.

II. Variables of the Surroundings, Equipment, and Tools.

1. Appliances.

2. Clothes.

3. Colors.

4. Entertainment, music, reading, etc.

5. Heating, Cooling, Ventilating.

6. Lighting.

DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL OUTLINE 7

7. Quality of material.

8. Reward and punishment.

9. Size of unit moved.

10. Special fatigue-eliminating devices.

11. Surroundings.

12. Tools.

13. Union rules.

14. Weight of unit moved.

III. Variables of the Motion.

1. Acceleration.

2. Automaticity.

3. Combination with other motions and se-

quence.

4. Cost.

5. Direction.

6. Effectiveness.

7. Foot-pounds of work accomplished.

8. Inertia and momentum overcome.

9. Length.

10. Necessity.

11. Path.

12. "Play for position."

13. Speed.

In taking up the analysis of any problem of motion
reduction we first consider each variable on the list sepa-
rately, to see if it is an element of our problem.

Our discussion of these variables must of necessity be
incomplete, as the subject is too large to be investigated
thoroughly by any one student. Moreover, the nature of

8 MOTION STUDY

our work is such that only investigations can be made as
show immediate results for increasing outputs or reducing
unit costs.

The nature of any variable can be most clearly shown
by citing a case where it appears and is of importance.
But it is obviously impossible in a discussion such as this
to attempt fully to illustrate each separate variable even
of our incomplete list.

Most of our illustrations are drawn from bricklaying.
We have applied motion study to our office and field forces,
and to many of the trades, but our results on bricklaying
are the most interesting, because it is the oldest mechan-
ical trade there is. It has passed through all the eras of
history, it has been practiced by nations barbarous and
civilized, and was therefore in a condition supposed to
be perfection before we applied motion study to it, and
revolutionized it.

Since first writing these articles for Industrial Engineer-
ing it has been of great interest to the writer to learn
of the conscious and successful application of the prin-
ciples involved to the particular fields of work that
have interested various readers. It was thought that
unity might be lent to the argument by choosing the
illustrations given from one field. The reader will prob-
ably find himself more successful in estimating the value
of the underlying laws by translating the illustrations
into his own vocabulary, — by thinking in his own chosen
material.

DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL OUTLINE 9

The practical value of a study such as this aims to be
will be increased many fold by cooperation in application
and illustration. The variables, at best an incomplete
framework, take on form and personality when so con-
sidered.

CHAPTER II
VARIABLES OF THE WORKER

ANATOMY

A CAREFUL study of the anatomy of the worker will enable
one to adapt his work, surroundings, equipment, and tools
to him. This will decrease the number of motions he must
make, and make the necessary motions shorter and less
fatiguing.

Examples. — i. If the bricklayer is left-handed the
relative position of the pile of packs to the mortar box is
reversed.

2. The staging is erected so that the uprights will be
out of the bricklayer's way whenever reaching for brick
and mortar at the same time. (See Fig. i.)

3. Packs can be piled at a height with reference to the
height of the mortar box that will enable stock to be picked
up more easily by bending over sideways than by bending
forwards. This latter case is, of course, on work where
the non-stooping scaffold is not used.

4. The planks on the bricklayer's platform of the non-
stooping scaffold, if made of two unconnected planks, will
enable the bricklayer to lean either toward the stock plat-
form or toward the wall without any other effort than that

VARIABLES OF THE WORKER

of throwing his weight on one foot or the other, taking
advantage of the spring of the planks. (See Fig. 2.)

5. The inside plank of the bricklayer's platform must
extend in under the stock platform, or the bricklayer's leg

Fig. i. — Non-stooping scaffold designed so that uprights are out of
the bricklayer's way whenever reaching for brick and mortar at
the same time.

will strike the edge of the plank of the stock platform
when he reaches for stock.

6. The stock platform must not be wider than the
minimum width that will permit holding the packets, or
the lower-priced packet man will not place the packs
exactly in that position that will require the least amount
of straining of the high-priced workman, the bricklayer.

MOTION STUDY

SECII N THUD

Fig. 2. — Gilbreth's patent non-stooping scaffold for bricklaying.

The numbers show the correct sequence of courses and tiers as laid from
the non-stooping scaffold for the fewest, shortest, and most economical

VARIABLES OF THE WORKER 13

BRAWN

Workmen vary widely as to their brawn and strength.

When the actual work is being done, due consideration
should be given to the percentage of efficiency that the
men available possess. But all calculations should be
made on the basis of using first-class men only. All data
should be gathered from observations on first-class men
only. In fact, so-called first-class men are not good enough.
The best man obtainable anywhere is the best for obser-
vation purposes. The data gathered on that best man
will then be considered as loo-per-cent quality. The men
finally used can then be considered as of a certain percent-
age of perfect quality, and it should then be the aim of the
management to attain loo-per-cent quality. This is one
of the most important factors in the success of intensive
management. The manager who wins is the one who has
the men best suited for the purpose. Intensive manage-
ment must not only recognize quickly the first-class man,
but must also attract first-class men.

Everybody concedes that the size of the output depends,
first of all, on the quality of the men.

Example. — We have found that a first-class laborer, if
his work is so arranged that he does not have to stoop
over, but can do his work with a straight back, can handle
ninety pounds of brick on a packet (see Fig. 3) day after
day and keep in first-class physical condition, while laborers
of a class that does not have the right food cannot handle

14 MOTION STUDY

continuously over sixty to seventy pounds of bricks on a
packet.

It is obviously better to have all one class of men, so
that all instruction cards will be as nearly alike as possible.
The size of the shovel, the weight of the hammer, the num-
ber of brick on the packet — these are variables that must

Fig. 3. — Arrangement of gravity conveyor for unloading brick
so that laborer does not have to stoop.

also be considered when making out the instruction card
— and these are all influenced by the brawn of the worker.

CONTENTMENT

Contentment affects the output of the worker. If he is
contented, he will have his mind on his work, and he will
be more willing to carry out the motions exactly as directed
on the instruction card.

VARIABLES OF THE WORKER 15

The contented worker does not require so large a per-
centage of rest for overcoming fatigue from his intensive
efforts.

Contentment makes for loyalty to the management, for
cooperating for maintainment of the best conditions, and
for the protection and preservation of the property of the
employer.

CREED

The term " creed" is used to cover religion, nationality,
etc., — everything that might act as a bond of sympathy
between workers and the people with whom they come in
contact. On work where the output of each man is re-
corded separately, the question as to whether the creed of
the workman is the same as that of his foreman, or super-
intendent, or employer, is of little consequence.

In places where the output of each man is not recorded
separately, it is a recognized fact that instructions of the fore-
man or employer will be more apt to be carried out where
there is a bond of sympathy between the employees, the fore-
man, and the employers. A bond of sympathy between
the workman and the people who are to occupy the edifice
upon which they are working will also increase the output.

The motions of a bricklayer working upon the wall of
a church differing from his own religion are often vastly
different from those that he is careful to make when the
congregation to occupy it coincides with his belief.

In planning athletic contests also, it is well to group
men according to their affiliations.

1 6 MOTION STUDY

Example. — On engine beds and similar work, where
the pieces are isolated, assigning gangs of men of different
nationalities to the different beds will create extra interest
in the contests. If this is not feasible, put the tall men
on one bed and the short men on the other, or the single
men against the married men, or eastern "pick-and-dip"
men against western " string-mortar " men.

EARNING POWER

The matter of classifying men by their relative earning
power is as important as classifying them by their relative
brawn. It is better, of course, to have men as nearly as
possible of one class only, and that the best class. Class-
ing men by their earning power simplifies the work of the
planning department in many ways. It enables it to pre-
scribe the same motions to the entire class of men, to
place them all under nearly the same conditions, to pre-
scribe the same tools and surroundings, to place them
together, and, finally, to have an athletic contest between
the men of the same class.

Furthermore, the motions to be made are often entirely
different for workmen of different earning power.

Examples. — i. With masons and laborers of low earn-
ing power it is sometimes advisable to place the brick on
the packets any way that will give the fewest motions for
loading the packets, and to let the bricklayers lay them
with their customary numerous motions, until men of
higher earning power may be obtained to take their places.

VARIABLES OF THE WORKER 17

2. With bricklayers and laborers of high earning power
it is better to have the laborers pile the brick upon the
packets so that the brick will be in that position that
requires the least amount of motions of the bricklayer to
pick them up and to lay them.

It is obvious that all motions performed in handling or
transporting material before the material is used, cut up,
or fabricated, should, theoretically, be performed by low-
priced men, and that the work done by the high-priced

Fig. 4. — Right way to pick up brick from upper tier
on the packet.

men should be limited as far as possible to the work of per-
manent character. As an example of this, the carrying of
the brick and mortar to the scaffold is done by the mason's
helper, while the carrying of the brick from the packet to
its final resting place in the wall is done by the mason.
This same principle can be carried much further in all

1 8 MOTION STUDY

trades than is usually customary to-day. For example,
we have found that piling the brick face up and with
the top side nearest the palm of the bricklayer's hand
when his arm hangs in a natural position will save an
average of one motion of the high-priced bricklayer per
brick. (See Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 7.)

We have found a great increase in the number of brick
it is possible to lay, and a decrease in the cost of laying
them if the brick are placed by the low-priced man in the
nearest practicable place in feet and inches from the place
where they will finally rest in the wall. Not only this,

Fig. 5. — Wrong way to pick up brick from upper tier
on the packet.

but the receptacle must be left with the material on it, so
that the higher-priced man can lift the receptacle and its
contents simultaneously at the exact time the materials
are wanted to a place still nearer to the place where the
material will be finally used, to be transported from there

VARIABLES OF THE WORKER 19

to their final resting place by a still higher-priced man.
(See Figs. 2 and 8.)

This use of "low-priced men" does not mean the use of
mediocre men. The men used, of whatever price, should
be the best men of that class obtainable.

EXPERIENCE

That previous experience is an element to be considered
is obvious. This fact is so well recognized that the expres-

Fig. 6. — Right way to pick up brick from the lower tier
on the packet.

sion "You can't teach an old dog new tricks" may be
heard around the world. While this may be true with
dogs, it is not true with workmen. On a short job it may

MOTION STUDY

not be advisable to attempt to change radically the life-
time customs of a local workman. But recording the out-
put of each man separately will tell whether or not it is
advisable to make out the instruction card in accordance
with the previous experience of the workman, or in accord-
ance with the way in which actual records have proved to
be productive of the highest outputs. Experience varies

Fig. 7. — Wrong way to pick up brick from the lower tier
on the packet.

widely, and the habits formed are often difficult to over-
come.

Example. — A bricklayer from certain sections of New
England has been accustomed to pick up mortar with a
trowel at the same time that he picks up brick with the

VARIABLES OF THE WORKER

MOTION STUDY

other hand. This is called the " pick-and-dip method."
The size and shape of his mortar receptacle, the arrange-
ment of the brick and mortar on his scaffold, the shape
of the scaffold itself, the sequence in which he builds the
vertical tiers and the horizontal courses, and, finally, the
labor-union rules themselves, are fashioned after the con-
sequences of using a small trowel, just large enough to
pick up sufficient mortar for one brick only.

Fig. 9. — The usual method of providing the bricklayer
with material.

A bricklayer so trained finds it difficult at first to adapt
himself to the "string mortar" method of the West. The
western-taught bricklayer experiences the same difficulties
in adapting himself to the " pick-and-dip " method with
the speed of the eastern bricklayer. But their difficulties

VARIABLES OF THE WORKER 23

are nothing compared with those that the employer ex-
periences who puts the good points of both systems on
any one job.

Not only do habitual motions become fixed, but also
the previous experience of the bricklayer is often the
cause of his making too many motions, i.e., unnecessary
motions. He seldom, if ever, has been rigidly trained to
use a certain number of definite motions. It takes time
and patience to induce him to adopt a standard method.

On a small job it is advisable to select those men for the
leads and the trigs who are best fitted to be leaders, that
is, 'who are best prepared by previous experience to carry
out without delay the requirements of the instruction
cards — but give due consideration to the previous ex-
perience and habits of work of the workmen.

On a large job, however, it is most economical to insist
on standard methods and standard motions that will pro-
duce the highest outputs, without regard to the previous
training of the workmen. Attract and retain those work-
men who can follow out their instruction card and as a
result produce the high records of outputs.

FATIGUE

Fatigue is an important : variable to consider when""
selecting those motions that will give the most economy
and that make the " standard motions." It goes without
saying that the motions that cause the least fatigue are
the most desirable, other things being equal.

24 MOTION STUDY

Fatigue is due to a secretion in the blood.
To quote from an article signed "I. M. T." in the
American Magazine for February, 1910:

"The toxin of fatigue is the phrase the physicians have
given us with which to jar the attention of those who can
only be stirred by harsh words. It has been demon-
strated in the last few years that fatigue is due to an
actual poison not unlike the poison or toxin of diphtheria.
It is generated in the body by labor. But the system
takes care of itself and generates enough anti-toxin to
take care of a normal amount of toxin or poison. If it
continues to be produced in abnormal quantities the sys-
tem cannot grapple with it. There is a steady poisoning
of the body, with all the baneful effects, mental and moral,
as well as physical, that poison produces."

Continuous hard work, however, like proper training, puts
the body into that condition that best overcomes fatigue.
Fatigue is due to three causes:

1. Fatigue due to coming to work improperly rested
(fatigue brought to the job).

2. Unnecessary fatigue, due to unnecessary work, un-
necessary motions, or uncomfortable positions, surround-
ings, and conditions of working.

3. Necessary fatigue, due to output.

Every motion causes fatigue. The same motions in
the same trade cause about the same fatigue for all first-
class men, and they all require about the same amount of
rest to overcome fatigue, provided their habits and mode
of living are the same outside of working hours.

VARIABLES OF THE WORKER 25

p-— %

The amount of fatigue caused and the percentage of

rest required in many different kinds of work have been
computed by Frederick W. Taylor with great exactness. /
He has assigned the various workers to classes and accu- /
rately computed the "task" from his records.

We have no such records as Mr. Taylor has gathered,
but we have numerous records of outputs of different men
on several kinds of work. We know that the amount of
rest actually required by a workman increases with the
discomfort of the position in which he works. We also
know that the speed, hence the output of the worker, de-
creases rapidly if there is much fatigue to overcome.

Example. — A bricklayer can lay brick for a few min-
utes quite as quickly when he picks up the brick from the
level of the platform on which he stands (see Fig. 9), as
he can when he picks up the brick from a bench twenty-
four inches above the level of the platform on which he
stands (see Figs. 10, n, and 12), but he cannot keep that
speed up, because he requires more rest to overcome the
greater fatigue.

It is not simply for the welfare alone, although that
reason should be sufficient, but for economic reasons as
well, that the men should be so j>laced and equipped
that their work is done under the most comfortable
conditions.

Examples. — i. It is a recognized fact that a clut-
tered-up floor under a workman's feet will tire him quite
as much as the productive work that he is doing. A

MOTION STUDY

§8

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be ^

O en

c3 c_i

a °

VARIABLES OF THE WORKER

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42 'J3

'C In

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tj .SP

MOTION STUDY

smooth-planked floor will enable a bricklayer to lay many
more brick than will earth that has been leveled off.

2. A bricklayer can stoop over and pick up anything
from the floor with one hand with much less fatigue if he
has a place to rest his other hand while he is stooping,

Fig.' 12. — Standard practice for providing bricklayers with material for
pick-and-dip method of bricklaying when the wall is shoulder high.

because he puts his weight on one foot and lifts his other
foot out behind him, which does not tire the muscles of his
back nearly so much.

Slow motions do not necessarily cause less fatigue than
quick motions, and, per unit of work done, may cause
much more fatigue than quick motions.

The amount of work done per motion may not be
fatiguing proportionately to the size of the unit.

VARIABLES OF THE WORKER 2Q

Example. — Lifting ninety pounds of brick on a packet
to the wall will fatigue a bricklayer much less than handling
the same number of brick one or two at a time. Conse-
quently with the same amount of fatigue the workman
will handle several times as many brick on packets as he
can handle one or two at a time.

We have, then, under this variable two tasks to perform:

1. To eliminate unnecessary fatigue. This we do by
studying and fixing the variables; that is, by standardiz-
ing the work.

2. To provide for rest from necessary fatigue, and to
utilize rest time.

Under old forms of management workmen " should keep
busy at something," even if prevented from doing their
regular work. An idle workman was considered a disgrace. /
The consequence of this was that the workman took his rest j
while working, or made believe work while resting. The ,
old-fashioned kind of rest is called " systematic soldiering."
It is the curse of the military type of management. It is \
a form of cheating that has been made respectable ,by the \
conditions forced upon the workers by the employers.

Under scientific management the evils of soldiering are
eliminated, and the correct definite percentage of rest
required is recognized and provided for. When a man is
prevented by causes beyond his control from doing his
regularly assigned work, he is told to use the opportunity
for rest, — not to take such rest as can be obtained by
making slow and useless motions, that will give him an

MOTION STUDY

VARIABLES OF THE WORKER

32 MOTION STUDY

industrious appearance to the casual observer, but to rest,
the loo-per-cent kind of rest.

There are cases where chairs and reading tables have
been provided with beneficial effect for workers to occupy
when delayed for a few minutes. They get the rest, and
their presence at the table acts as a danger signal to the
management.

When a man is fatigued to the point where it is im-
possible for him to do his best work he should be made to
rest. He must not do anything but rest until he is in that
condition that will enable him to fly at his work and per-
form it with the fastest standard motions possible.

Rest does not necessarily mean idleness. The worker
can spend the rest period reading his instruction card, or
filling out his record of output on the card, or in some
other form of restful work. A change of work is often a
rest. By performing the above two tasks well, we secure
the greatest output per day and the fewest hours per day
without injury to the health of the men.

HABITS

The habits of the workman have much to do with his
success in eliminating unnecessary motions and in adopt-
ing quickly and permanently standard methods. The
term " habits,'' as here used, includes not only personal
" habits," so-called, but also habits of thinking, habits of
working, etc.

Habits brought to the work may act as a deterrent or

VARIABLES OF THE WORKER 33

as an aid to its best performance. They embrace a group
of sub-variables which are difficult to describe and analyze,
and are of immense importance in influencing output.

That acquiring good habits of work makes the worker
more versatile as well as more efficient is forcefully stated
by Mr. Gantt in his book on "Work, Wages, and Profits."
He says:

"The habits that a man has to acquire to become effi-
cient in one class of work stand him in good stead in be-
coming efficient in other work. These habits of work are
vastly more important than the work itself, for it is our
experience that a man who has become efficient in one thing,
readily learns to become efficient at doing other things."

HEALTH
The health of the worker may be affected by:

1. Other things than his work and the conditions under
which it is done.

2. The work.

Consideration of other things than the work may prop-
erly be left to the welfare department. This department
can most successfully define the scope of its work by
attempting to improve the man himself and his surround-
ings in every way that will make him a better and more
successful worker. This criterion will satisfy both em-
ployer and employee as to the appropriateness, justness,
and utility of the work of the welfare department.

The life of the man when away from work is only in so
far subject to the inspection and jurisdiction of the so-

34 MOTION STUDY

called " welfare" department as that department can show
itself able to make of the man a more valuable economic
unit to himself and to the community.

If the welfare department makes an efficient workman
the product of its work, the philanthropic by-products
will take care of themselves.

The work itself should be laid out in such a way that its
performance will add to and not subtract from health. A
proper study and determination of the variables that affect
the surroundings and the motion will go far to insure this.
Moreover, standardized work will transform the workman.

Henry L. Gantt, in a most stimulating paper on " Train-
ing the Workmen in Habits of Industry and Cooperation,"
read before the American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
December, 1908, says of workmen:

"As they become more skilled, they form better habits
of work, lose less time, and become more reliable Their
health improves, and the improvement in their general ap-
pearance is very marked. This improvement in health
seems to be due to a more regular a-nd active life, com-
bined with a greater interest in their work, for it is a well-
known fact that work in which we are interested and
which holds our attention without any effort on our part,
tires us much less than that we have to force ourselves
to do."

This Mr. Gantt says in speaking of the benefits of the
"task and bonus" system; but the same thing is undoubt-
edly true of men working under standards derived from
motion study.

VARIABLES OF THE WORKER 35

MODE OF LIVING

Mode of living has been more or less touched upon
under "health" and " habits." It is a complex variable,
difficult to analyze and difficult to control. Its effects on
output are for this reason all the more far-reaching and
demand scientific investigation.

NUTRITION

This is a subject that has been investigated much more
scientifically with regard to horses and mules than with
regard to workmen, but cases are seen on every hand
where it is more profitable to furnish the most nutritious
food to the men gratis than to permit them to have the
usual poor food of the padrones' storehouse. In the build-
ing of a new town in Maine it was found to be economical
to spend considerable sums of money for supplying food for
the men at less than cost, rather than to have them eat
the food provided by the local boarding houses. The
nutritive value of various foods and the amount of energy
which various diets enable one to put forth have been
made a study in training soldiers. There must be many
tdata available on the subject, and the government should
collect them and issue a bulletin for the use of the welfare
departments of large employing organizations. The army
might also serve as an example in many other ways to the
student of economics. The " Tactics" are admirable " in-
struction cards," conforming to many of the laws of

36 MOTION STUDY

motion study. It seems unfortunate that the govern-
ments of the world up to the present time have confined
all of their attempts to standardize motions to the arts
of war, and have done nothing in this line in the arts of
peace.

SIZE

Size of men, with relation to their motions, has much
more influence than is usually realized.

Short men are usually the best shovelers where the
shovelful need not be raised much in doing the work, such
as in mixing mortar and concrete. Few foremen realize
that this is because a short man does fewer foot-pounds of
work in doing the same amount of shoveling. On the
other hand, when men are shoveling in a trench, the taller
the men, usually, the more the output per man.

Oftentimes a staging is built at a height below a set of
floor beams that enables the men to work to best advan-
tage. On such a staging men should be selected of as
nearly the same height as possible.

SKILL

The workman with the most skill is usually the one
who can adapt himself quickest to new methods and
conditions.

Example. — A bricklayer who has great skill in his
trade can instantly lay a brick in the same manner that
he is once shown. To get him to do so constantly when
not supervised is difficult, but that can be quickest im-

VARIABLES OF THE WORKER 37

pressed upon his mind if he is shown the reason for
every change demanded of him.

To make sure that the worker of the future acquires his
skill properly, is the most important task here. This can be
done only by insisting continuously on conformity to scien-
tifically derived standards from the beginning of his training.

Example. — The best results from a motion- study stand-
point can be attained only by teaching the apprentice
from his first day to lay the brick with the standard
motions regardless of the looks of the work. If the work
is not good enough to permit the brick to remain on the
wall, a skilled bricklayer should fix it, until the apprentice
can lay the brick with the prescribed standard motions in
a manner good enough to permit the work to remain as a
part of the structure.

The apprentice should not be permitted to depart from
the standard motions in any case until he has first acquired
them as a fixed habit. The most pernicious practice is
the generally accepted one of first having an apprentice
do perfect work and then attempting to make speed later.
The right motions should be taught first, and the work
taken down and rebuilt until it is up to standard quality.
This is the only way to get the full benefits of the economics
of motion study. (See Figs. 13 and 14.)

The workman who will make the highest outputs of the
future will be he who has as a habit those standard motions
that are the most productive when operated under stand-
ard conditions.

MOTION STUDY

Fig. 15. — The numbers show the correct sequence of courses and
tiers as laid from the ordinary scaffold for the fewest, shortest,
and most economical motions.

TEMPERAMENT

The temperament of the man has more to do with the
motion he uses than one usually supposes.

Example. — Many expert face bricklayers would quit a
job rather than lay common brick on interior walls, even

VARIABLES OF THE WORKER

Patent ScmM

r»

30 18

12 6

X> \ 8

Fig. 1 6. — The numbers show the correct sequence of courses and
tiers as laid from the non-stooping scaffold for the fewest,
shortest, and most economical motions. This scaffold permits
a much larger percentage of the brick to be laid as " filling in,"
instead of as "backing up," consequently requiring less skillful
motions.

though they might earn higher wages on the inside work.
Other bricklayers prefer to lay common brickwork, — not
that they doubt their ability to lay the face brick, but
because they like the strenuous athletic contests for high

40 MOTION STUDY

scores of output and high pay. To them there is no
monotony in laying common brick day after day, for to the
skilled mason brick are not so nearly alike as are human
beings.

A bricklayer interested in his work will often remember
the characteristics of one certain brick years after he has
forgotten the wall upon which it was laid.

Therefore the temperament of the man must be taken
into consideration when placing the men. When they are
best placed they follow their instructions on the subject of
motion, and higher scores will be the result.

TRAINING

" Training" is so closely related to "skill" and "ex-
perience" that it is difficult to separate it from them. We
use the word to mean both the worker's theoretical and
practical equipment for his work, his entire preparation.
The problem is to see that the worker has both kinds of
equipment, acquired in the most useful, balanced method
possible.

The training of the available worker must always be
considered in estimating the time that it will take him to
acquire standard methods and the output that can be
expected of him. The training of the worker of the future
should be planned to fit him for standard work. The
training of the apprentice on the work to-day is usually
defective because he has little or no training in theory
at the same time that he is getting his practice. Further-

VARIABLES OF THE WORKER 41

more, the journeyman who is his instructor not only has
had no training in pedagogy, but often lacks the benefits
of the elements of a common-school education. The usual
time of apprenticeship in the building trades in this coun-
try is three years, or until the apprentice is twenty-one
years old.

On the other hand, the boy taught in the trade school
lacks training under actual working conditions. The ques-
tion of dollars and cents to make for the employer,* special
fitting for high wages for himself, and the knowledge
of the principles underlying the requirements necessary
in order to obtain specially high outputs from intensive
management, are wholly lacking.

The present apprenticeship system is pitiful and criminal
from the apprentice's standpoint, ridiculous from a modern
system standpoint, and there is no word that describes its
wastefulness from an economic standpoint.

SUMMARY

Before turning to the variables of the surroundings, it
may be well to summarize. The variables of the worker
consist of the elements of the equipment that the worker
brings to his work, both those that he was born with and
those that he has acquired. These are mental and physical.

We have concluded :

1. That first-class men should always be secured if that
be possible.

2. That everything possible should be done to preserve

42 MOTION STUDY

and to add to the natural powers and capacities that the
worker brings to his work.

3. That standard practice derived from motion study
does add to the natural powers of the worker, and both
shortens his hours of work and adds to his output.

4. That training based on the laws underlying standard
practice will enable the worker of the future to attain still
higher efficiency and output.

CHAPTER III
VARIABLES OF THE SURROUNDINGS

WE turn now to the variables of the surroundings.
These differ from the variables of the worker in that we
can influence them more quickly and more directly. In
discussing the variables of the worker, we deal more or
less with the past and the future. The variables of the
surroundings are each and all distinctly of the present.

APPLIANCES

The " standard conditions" maintained by the employer
are a most important factor for high outputs. It is obvi-
ous that the appliances furnished the workman and the
motions used are interdependent on each other.

Examples. — i. The bricklayer could not be expected to
pick up the brick so that he would not have to spin or flop
it in his hand unless it were delivered to him in the right
position on a packet.

2. The bricklayer could not be expected to have so
high an output if he had to stoop over in order to pick
up his stock as he would have to do if the scaffold did not
have a bench that obviated bending.

3. The bricklayer could not be expected to lay brick
without turning around or bending over unless he was
provided with packs of bricks that could be lifted bodily

44 MOTION STUDY

and placed upon the wall in units as large as could be
economically handled.

4. The bricklayer could not be expected to do away
with those motions that are necessary to remove the lumps
from under a brick if there were holes in the sand screen
and no pug mill to break up the lumps.

It is most important that the workman should be given
" handy conditions" under which to work, that is, the
"most comfortable," or those that require the " least per-
centage of rest" to overcome fatigue.

Examples. — i. The bricklayer must obviously have a
scaffold to stand upon that permits adjusting the height
of the platform on which he stands to a standard distance
below the top of the ever-growing wall on which he is lay-
ing the brick. We have found that the best height is
from twenty-four to thirty-two inches below the top of the
wall. If the wall is being laid overhanded, the height
should not be over twenty-four inches, while if the wall
is not being laid overhanded, thirty-two inches is the better
height.

It is obvious that the bench from which the stock is
picked up should be maintained at a standard distance
above the platform on which the man stands. Also the
platform on which the laborer walks should be located at
the standard distance below the stock platform that will
enable him to deposit the brick and mortar in a manner
that will cause the least fatigue. Therefore, the three
platforms for bricklayer, stock, and tender should be

VARIABLES OF THE SURROUNDINGS 45

fixed with relation to one another, and movable in relation
to the top of the wall, capable of being hoisted as the wall
grows without stopping or disturbing the men.

2. The elevator for hoisting the brick and mortar should
always be arranged so that it can, when desired, land
above the top of a staged wall, and thus the brick and mor-
tar can be wheeled down to the scaffold on the floor below.
Then the tenders can wheel down with full loads and
wheel the empty barrows up to the floor above.

3. Make a table, barrel, or box to put near the work-
man, no matter what his trade is, so that he will not have
to stoop over and pick up his tools. Provide something to
lean his shovel against or to hang his shovel on when he is
alternately shoveling and wheeling to cut down time and
to reduce the fatigue of stooping over and picking up the
shovel.

The motions to be used and to be avoided are largely
determined and affected by the appliances used; therefore
for the highest outputs the right appliances must be de-
vised, standardized, used, and maintained, otherwise the
motions cannot be standardized. Furthermore, it is much
easier to standardize motions with standard appliances
than without them.

CLOTHES

The clothes that the workman wears may be a hindrance
or a help to him in his work. Tight or ill-fitting clothing
may restrict motions. Fear of ruining clothing may
seriously cut down the speed of the worker.

46 MOTION STUDY.

On the other hand, clothing designed and specially
adapted to the work that the worker has to do may in-
crease output to a surprising extent.

Not till the advantages have been appreciated of having
working clothes made the subject of study from the motion-
economy standpoint will manufacturers provide the gar-
ments needed. But they are only too anxious to meet
every demand as soon as they are conscious of it. Once
let the specialized clothes for the worker be standardized
and they will be placed immediately upon the market in
inexpensive, durable, and attractive shape.

As for their reception by the worker, as soon as he
realizes that they increase his efficiency, and are a badge
of specialization and not of servitude, he will be ready and
glad to welcome them.

COLOR

The stimulating effect of color upon workers is a subject
to be investigated by psychologists. The results of their
study should be of great benefit, especially to indoor work-
ers. Motions could undoubtedly be made simpler by the
proper selection of the color of painting and lighting in
the workroom.

In our work we have to deal chiefly with color as a
saver of motions. Color can be seen quicker than shape.
Therefore, distinguishing things by their color is quicker
than distinguishing them by the printing on them.

Examples. — i. The various pipes in a pipe gallery

VARIABLES OF THE SURROUNDINGS 47

can best be recognized by painting them different
colors.

2. The right-hand end of the packet is painted black, in
order that when carried in the right hand of the laborer
it can be placed so that the bricklayer can pick up each
brick without spinning or flopping the brick in his
hand.

3. Painting tools different colors, and also the place
where they are to be placed in the drawer or the chest
the same color, saves motions and time of motions when
putting them away and finding them next time.

4. When low-priced men bring packages of any kind to
higher-priced men to use or handle, the packages should
always be painted, stenciled, or labeled with a distinguish-
ing color on one end and on top. This will enable the
low-priced workman to place the package in the manner
called for on the instruction card with the least thought,
delay, and motions. It will also enable the high-priced
man to handle the package with no such lost motions as
turning the package around or over.

5. Oftentimes the workmen who are best fitted phys-
ically for their work cannot read, or at least cannot read
English. Even if they could, it would take some time to
read the stenciled directions on the non-stooping scaffold
to the effect that "this side goes against the brick wall."
It will greatly reduce the number of motions to paint the
side that goes next to the wall a different color from the
side that goes away from the wall.

48 MOTION STUDY

ENTERTAINMENT

Music. — The inspiring and stimulating effect of music
has been recognized from ancient times, as is shown by
the military band, the fife and drum corps, the bagpipe
of the Scotchman, down to the band that rushes the
athlete around the track or across the field.

The singing of gangs at certain kinds of work, the rhyth-
mic orders that a leader of a gang shouts to his men, and
the grunting in unison of the hand drillers, show the
unifying as well as the motion-stimulating effect of music
and rhythm.

That some of the trades can have their motions affected

time and speed by music, to a point that will materially

Feet the size of their outputs, is a recognized fact.

Some of the silent trades have used phonography and
musical instruments to entertain the men while they were
working. It was found it paid the employer to furnish
stimulating records at his own expense, so that the work-
men would make more and quicker motions, rather than
to permit the employees to furnish phonographic records at
random at their own expense.

Reading. — Reading as a stimulus to output has been
used with excellent results among the cigar makers.

It is also interesting to read in an article on " Three
Months in Peonage" in the March, 1910, issue of the
American Magazine, that story- telling may produce the
same good results.

VARIABLES OF THE SURROUNDINGS 49

"The four packers under me," says the writer, a Ger-
man white, who was working with peons at packing tobacco
in Mexico, 'knew no greater joy than to listen to a fairy
tale with the regulation princess and dragon, and if I
could but tell them one, or one of their number did so, the
work went twice as fast, and they were happy."

The excellent and direct effects of entertainment upon
health, fatigue, etc., are subjects for the scientist to study
and the planning department and the welfare worker to
apply. The effects of entertainment upon output should
be studied by the student of motion economy. This
variable alone furnishes a vast field for investigation.

HEATING, COOLING, VENTILATING

Heating, cooling, ventilating, and humidizing are closely
allied, because all can be done with one and the same
apparatus, and all greatly increase the workman's comfort,
health, and possible number of motions.

Maintaining desired temperature in summer as well as
winter by forcing into workrooms air that has been passed
over heating or refrigerating coils has a great effect on the
workman. Many factories, such as chocolate factories,
have found that cooling the ai-r for better results to the
manufacturing process also enables the workers to pro-
duce more output — an output quite out of proportion to
the cost of providing the air.

In many trades requiring great alertness and physical
strength the proper heating and ventilating will allow

50 MOTION STUDY

the workman to dress in a costume specially adapted to
his work, or to strip almost to the athlete's suit, with a
consequent increased number and effectiveness of motions.

The degree of temperature and the percentage of humid-
ity desired for each day of the year should be determined.
The man in charge of the heating should receive no bonus
for small consumption of fuel unless he also maintained
the temperature and humidity called for on his instruc-
tion card.

The subjects of heating, ventilating, etc., are well cov-
ered by Mr. Hugo Diemer in his book on " Factory Organ-
ization and Administration." The proper time to consider
these subjects is when the building is designed, but too
often at that time the all-important question is, — How
cheaply can the building be built? Ultimate saving will
justify almost any conceivable first costs.

LIGHTING

The subject of lighting has, indirectly as well as directly,
a great influence upon output and motions, as upon the
comfort of the eye depends, to a large extent, the comfort
of the whole body.

The arrangement of lighting in the average office, fac-
tory, or house is generally determined by putting in the
least light necessary in order that the one who deter-
mined the location of the light may be able to see perfectly.
This is wrong. The best light is the cheapest. By that
is not meant that which gives the brightest light. In fact,

VARIABLES OF THE SURROUNDINGS 51

the light itself is but a small part of the question. Go
into any factory and examine every light, and you will
notice that as a rule they are obviously wrong. A light
to be right must pass five tests:

a. It must furnish the user sufficient light so that he
can see.

b. It must be so placed that it does not cause the user's
eyes to change the size of the diaphragm when ordinarily
using the light.

c. It must be steady.

d. There shall not be any polished surfaces in its vicin-
ity that will reflect an unnecessary bright spot anywhere
that can be seen by the eyes of the worker.

e. It must be protected so that it does not shine in the
eyes of some other worker.

The use of polished brass and nickel should be aban-
doned wherever it will shine in the worker's eye.

For work done on a flat surface, like the work of a book-
keeper or a reader, the light should be placed where the
glare will reflect least in the worker's eyes; where the
work is like the examining of single threads, the relative
color and figured pattern of the background, as well as
good light, is important. This is obvious. So is nearly
everything else in good management. Go into the build-
ings among the workers, the students, and the scientists
and see how rarely it is considered. All of this is not a
question of getting the most out of the light. Light in
a factory is the cheapest thing there is. It is wholly a

52 MOTION STUDY

question of fatigue of the worker. The best lighting con-
ditions will reduce the percentage of time required for
rest for overcoming fatigue. The difference between the
cost of the best lighting and the poorest is nothing com-
pared with the saving in money due to decreased time for
rest period due to less fatigued eyes.

It is a similar case to the taxicab concerns — they
charge their drivers with gasoline and tires and mileage,
accidents, etc., but they furnish the lubricating oil free.
The fallacy of the common practice of putting the lighting
in the hands of the man whose merit is measured inversely
as the coal bill is obvious.

The sub-variables involved make the problem as to
exactly what lighting is most desirable difficult of solution.
The proper solution will have such a beneficial effect, not
only upon the man's work, but also upon his welfare, that
no time or effort expended upon it can be too great.

QUALITY or MATERIAL

It is essential to the use of standard motions and the
resulting large output that all material used shall be in
exactly that state in which it can be most easily handled
by the worker.

Examples. — i. If there are lumps in the mortar, due to
pieces of brick or shavings or lumps of lime, or cement or
coarse pebbles in the sand, it is impossible for the bricklayer
to do his best work.

2. If the sand is not selected with reference to the thick-

VARIABLES OF THE SURROUNDINGS 53

ness of joints, if the sequence of tiers and courses (see
Figs. 15 and 16) and the thickness of joints is determined by
the whim of the bricklayer on the lead, instead of by the
planning department, it is out of the question to expect
high outputs. On the other hand, if the material is of
exactly that consistency with which it can be best handled,
and the other conditions are determined on the instruction
card, much better speed can be obtained.

3. When using cement mortar made of cement and sand
and no lime, the bricklayer will do more and better work
if a tender is kept on the stock platform tempering the
mortar to just the right consistency for the bricklayers.

4. If the brick are all handled in packs on packets from
the time that they arrive upon the job until they reach the
bricklayer's hand, they will each be of better quality, due
to there being little or no chipping from handling and
throwing about. The bricklayer will then be saved the
useless motions of picking up brick that are chipped and
discarding them again, to be used only when laying in the
filling tiers.

REWARDS AND PENALTIES

The stimulus that rewards and penalties give motions
is obvious. The discussion of reward and punishment
would come under the head of compensation. It must be
left to the cost reducing system to determine just what
system of compensation will induce the men to do their
swiftest, best work.

54 MOTION STUDY

SIZE OF UNIT MOVED

The most advantageous size of unit to use is a difficult
problem to solve, and is often controlled by some outside
factor. For example, the most economical size of brick
has been determined by the cost and other conditions
relating to the making and baking, and not by the con-
ditions of handling and laying. When the conditions of
laying are studied scientifically, as they are to-day, one is
forced to the conclusion that, for the greatest economy, the
size of common brick should be changed materially from
that of the present practice in America. The usual size of
the brick used in England is much larger than the cus-
tomary size used here.

It is obvious that there is some size of unit that is the
most economical to make the standard package for han-
dling brick in bulk. We have found it to be ninety-two
pounds for a first-class laborer, either for piling or loading
and unloading brick from carts. (See Figs. 17 and 18.)

Careful examination of brickwork with the object in
view of selecting the most profitable motions has entirely
revolutionized the methods of bricklaying. For example,
the size of unit that is picked up when loose brick are
handled must be one brick for each hand. The packet
enables us to pick up about eighteen brick at once.

The fountain trowel permits us to pick up and carry to
the wall and spread mortar for twenty-one brick at one
time without dropping the regular trowel which forms a
temporary handle to it. (See Fig. 19.)

VARIABLES OF THE SURROUNDINGS 55

Fig. 17. — Two-horse carts with horses changed from the empty
to the full carts will require fewer and cheaper motions than
any other methods of transportation.

Tig. 1 8. — Loading carts with go-pound packs of brick fed on
gravity conveyors.

56 MOTION STUDY

The two- wheeled trucket permits carrying twelve packets,
or 216 brick (see Fig. 20), while the hod carries 18 brick,
and the one- wheeled barrow carries 60 loose brick.

Fig. 19. — The Fountain Trowel for conveying and spreading
mortar for 21 brick. The regular trowel forms a temporary
handle for lifting and guiding it.

SPECIAL FATIGUE-ELIMINATING DEVICES

Only the careful student of management realizes how
much the speed of the worker can be increased by providing
him with all possible aids toward doing i.is work.

Mr. Fred. W. Taylor, in his paper on "Shop Manage-
ment," tells of a study he made of overhauling a set of
boilers.

"He [the writer] did all of the work of chipping, clean-

VARIABLES OF THE SURROUNDINGS 57

ing, and overhauling a set of boilers, and at the same time
made a careful time study of each of the elements of the
work. This time study showed that a great part of the

Fig. 20. — The two- wheeled trucket for carrying 12 packs. This
trucket is so perfectly balanced that it causes less fatigue
than the ordinary wheel-barrow.

time was lost owing to the constrained position of the work-
man. Thick pads were made to fasten to the elbows,
knees, and hips; special tools and appliances were made
for the various details of the work. . . . The whole scheme
was much laughed at when it first went into use, but the
trouble taken was fully justified, for the work was better
done than ever before, and it cost only eleven dollars to

58 MOTION STUDY

completely overhaul a set of 300 horse-power boilers by this
method, while the average cost of doing the same work on
day work without an instruction card was sixty-two dollars.''
In reading this, it must be remembered that the fatigue-
eliminating devices were only one element in increasing
speed and reducing costs. But, on the other hand, it
must be remembered also what a large element they were
in adding to the comfort and ultimate well-being of the
worker.

SURROUNDINGS

"Surroundings" have been previously discussed under
" Fatigue," "Appliances," etc. It is only necessary to
say here that the surroundings of the worker should be
standardized, the standard being derived from a study of
all the variables.

It is obvious that the highest possible records of output
cannot be obtained unless the workers are furnished with
a standard instruction card made out by the best man
obtainable, one who knows more about their work than
they do, and who can, and does, provide them with stand-
ard conditions that fulfill the most economical conditions
of motions. Even then daily outputs and unit costs must
be watched, so as to take advantage of the slightest change
of conditions that affect costs. In practice, the unit costs
must always also include the wages of the recorder, other-
wise one cannot tell when the wages of the recorders are
not deceiving as to actual unit Costs under this intensive
management.

VARIABLES OF THE SURROUNDINGS 59

TOOLS

The influence of the tools used upon the output is large.
No workman can possibly comply with standard motions
unless he has the standard tools. No worker should ever
be obliged to furnish his own tools, if large output is ex-
pected. When workmen are obliged to furnish their own
tools (due to their having too much thrift, lack of money,
or fear of having them stolen), they usually use one size
only of the same kind of tool. On many kinds of work
greater output can be obtained by using two or more
sizes of a tool.

Example. — The bricklayer should use a smaller trowel
on pressed brick and a larger trowel on common brick.

Again, where workmen furnish their own tools, they use
them after they are too much worn. A shovel with a
worn blade will require several motions to push it into
the material to fill it. It is cheaper in this case to cut
off the handle of the shovel, so that the men cannot use
it. Where no records are kept of their individual outputs
the men always choose the shovel with the small blade.

It is especially important that apprentices should be
supplied with proper tools. According to the usual prac-
tice the apprentice is taught with any tool procurable.
He becomes adept and skilled, but often becomes so ac-
customed to the poor tool he has used that he finds it
difficult to adapt himself to the use of a better new tool.
This seriously hinders his complying with demands for
standard quantities of output.

60 MOTION STUDY

Tools should be of standard size and pattern. Workmen
should invariably be made to use a tool that will enable
them to make standard-sized outputs instead of using
a tool that may seem "handier" to them. You cannot
expect a man to comply with standard motions unless he
has the standard tool for which his standard instruction
card was made out.

The customary method in the past for determining the
best weight of tool to use was to guess at it, and to
use that size of tool which was thought to be the
" handiest," or which it seemed could be used with the
least fatigue.

Makers of hand tools cater to the whims of the local
workmen, and, as a result, hand tools are made of many
different designs in different parts of the country. Makers
spend and waste great sums of money making experi-
ments and conducting selling campaigns of odd or new
designs of tools that have no merit from a motion-economy
standpoint. There should be a bureau of testing, where
the actual value of new shapes, designs, and sizes of tools
could be tested and rated in percentages of efficiency from
the standpoint of motion study.

Critics will say that such a scheme will crowd out new
designs, and the benefit of the individual's inventions will
be lost. But it would not; on the contrary, the testing
would give great stimulus to inventors, designers, and tool
makers, for they could then obtain the immediate atten-
tion of the buyers, because they would have the standard

VARIABLES OF THE SURROUNDINGS 6 1

stamp of merit that comes from the record of a test that
excelled previous standards.

We have testing stations for everything else. Think
what the societies for testing materials have done for the
progress of the world! Their records are usable forever, in
any part of the world, once they are made.

When machines have to be tended, two separate sets of
motions must be provided for:

1. The set that the worker uses when he is tending the
machine.

2. The set that the worker uses to prepare tools and
material for the machine while it does not require his
attention.

All machines have to be tended more or less. Even
automatic machinery has to have attention, and it is most
important here to have motion study, because of the earn-
ing value of the machine being lost while it is shut down.

One sees occasionally a machine that can have any and
every lever operated without the operator taking a single
step, but comparatively few machines are constructed
with this in mind.

Machines requiring constant starting and stopping and
hand feeding or adjusting should have their various levers
so positioned that the "laws of least effort of simultaneous
motions" are complied with.

These laws will be discussed under "Variables of the
Motion." It is only necessary to say here that motions
should be similar on each side of a fore and aft vertical

62 MOTION STUDY

plane passing through the body. It is so necessary to
have the motions similar that often counterbalances and
springs can be installed to reverse the motion, thus also
causing the hardest work to be done in the most convenient
direction.

Anything that is used very often can be returned to
place better, as well as with less motions, by gravity, or by
the application of the gravity by some such means as a string
and a weight. It requires some skill to use a wrench, but
it requires no skilled motion or thought to return the wrench
to its exact resting place with handle pointing in the most
economical direction for picking up the next time it is used.

The average machine to-day is designed for a short
demonstration of quick output, with less regard for the
least percentage of rest required for overcoming fatigue
due to continuous operation. With demand will come
supply of machines that fulfill all economical motion re-
quirements.

UNION RULES

The local rules of some unions are sometimes a hin-
drance to standardizing motions and thereby increasing
output. The higher wages from higher outputs under
intensive management soon convert the desirable members,
however.

Many unions believe that extremely high outputs per
man are against the interests of the union as a whole, on
the theory that they may "work all of their members out
of a job." Furthermore, they often think that the sacri-

VARIABLES OF THE SURROUNDINGS 63

fice that their one union may make in the world's en-
deavor to reduce the cost of living generally, is not properly
offset by having any one trade or any one locality practic-
ing intensive outputs. A few practical object lessons of
the general increase in business resulting from higher
wages and simultaneously created lower-production costs
will, however, always convince the most prejudiced be-
liever in artificially restricted maximum outputs.

The compensat:on of workers will not be discussed here,
although the basis of compensation does affect motions.

WEIGHT OF UNIT MOVED

Generally speaking, the weight of the unit moved is of
three kinds:

1. The weight of that part of the body that is moved.

2. The weight of a tool used, such as a hammer or
a trowel.

3. The weight of material used, such as a brick, or
the mortar on the trowel.

Other things being equal, the less of the body moved the
less fatigue.

The weight that the tool should be is determined by
the use of the tool. In the case of a sledge hammer, in-
creased weight means increased efficiency. A twenty-five
pound sledge might break a block of granite in halves
in five blows, while a ten pound hammer might require
one hundred blows. In the case of a trowel, increased
weight means decreased efficiency. The heavier the trowel,

64 MOTION STUDY

the greater the fatigue — with no accompanying gain in
output.

We have determined that a cutting-out hammer for
brickwork should weigh, exclusive of the handle, 3.75
pounds, but that a hammer for drilling plug holes in granite,
for making dog holes in heavy stone blocks, should weigh
4 pounds.

The weight of units moved should be standardized.

Example. — There is undoubtedly a certain sized load
in a shovel that will enable a first-class man to accom-
plish the largest output with his maximum effort. Taylor
has found his weight to be 21.5 pounds. The size of
shovels that should be used should therefore be desig-
nated on the instruction card accordingly, and exactly
21.5 pounds should be the standard unit of weight of
material shoveled.

SUMMARY

This discussion of the variables of the surroundings,
etc., is not detailed — because general discussion is self-
evident, and detailed discussion must be too specialized
to interest the general reader.

It is only necessary to call attention to the general laws,
logical and psychological, which underlie these variables,
and their effect on standardizing motions. Each student
naturally applies these laws to his own field, and sees for
himself the opportunities for further study and application.

CHAPTER IV
VARIABLES OF THE MOTION

A DISCUSSION of variables of the motion opens up a field
so large that it is only possible here to attempt to show
the method of investigation, and to show that each vari-
able is a necessary factor in making motions standard,
leaving to the universities and to properly created and
equipped bureaus of the national government the task of
reducing motion study to an exact science.

ACCELERATION

In considering acceleration of speed as an element of
any motion, we must determine:

1. The amount of acceleration that it is possible or

economical to obtain.

2. The means by which the acceleration can be obtained.

3. The effect of the acceleration on

a. Economy in time required to make the motion.

b. Economy in time required for rest to overcome

the fatigue of having made the motion.

Examples. — i. Laying brick on a wall from a floor,
from the height of the floor level up to three feet eight
inches high above the floor, can be done with greatest speed

66 MOTION STUDY

when the brick to be picked up are each maintained at a
height of one foot three inches, plus two-thirds the height
that the wall is higher than the level of the floor on which
the bricklayer stands. The brick to be picked up should
never be higher than three feet eight inches under any
circumstances.

By maintaining the height of the brick to be laid in this
relative position to the height of the wall, the brick will
always be in a position that permits the bricklayer to
accelerate the speed of transportation of the brick by using
the path of the quickest speed.

While bricklayers know nothing about this in theory,
they very soon discover it in practice by means of their
higher recorded output. Greater outputs will be notice-
able as an immediate result of maintaining the brick as
nearly as possible at the heights above stated.

2. In laying the filling tiers in any one course, it is most
economical to lay the farthest filling tier first and the next
farthest tier second, and so on. This enables the brick-
layer to accelerate the speed of transportation of the brick
up to the instant that it is deposited in the mortar.

The above practice is, of course, much more important
on shove-joint work than on brick-and-brick construction.

3. The possible benefits from acceleration should be
taken into consideration when determining the sequence
in which the tiers shall be laid. The position of the feet
of the bricklayer is an important factor in obtaining the
acceleration desired. For the best results the feet should

VARIABLES OF THE MOTION 67

be on separate springy planks, so that the transportation
of the brick can be speeded up, in addition to the speed of
the arms by simply throwing the body by the aid of the
spring of the plank. (See Fig. 13.)

AUTOMATICITY

Nearly all often-repeated motions become automatic.
This is especially true of motions that require no careful
supervision of mind or eye.

The automaticity of motions is of great assistance to
the worker whose training and methods conform to stand-
ardized motions. This fact makes it necessary to have
the apprentice taught the right motions first, last, and
always.

The automaticity of motions is a hindrance to the
worker who has been accustomed to old-fashioned sur-
roundings, equipment, and tools, and who must adapt
himself to standard surroundings.

Example. — A remarkable example of making unneces-
sary motions as a matter of habit is noticeable in places
where the local bricklayers have been accustomed to laying
brick that have a decided difference in the top and bottom.
This difference makes it necessary to lay no brick upside
down on the line. When these bricklayers first worked
from packets with the brick in the right position to seize
right-side up, they would invariably flop and spin each
brick in their hands, first wrong-side up and then back
again to the original right-side-up position.

68 MOTION STUDY

The worker who has been trained wrong also finds it
difficult to change his habits when he conforms to standard
methods.

Example. — Occasionally we find the bricklayer who
will spin or flop a brick that is to be laid in the middle of
the wall, although it makes no difference which face of the
brick is uppermost in these tiers.

The best way to cure motions that are not necessary but
that are made from force of habit is to count the motions
aloud, endeavoring to keep down to the standard number
of standard motions.

When work is done by both hands simultaneously, it
can be done quickest and with least mental effort if the
work is done by both hands in a similar manner; that is
to say, when one hand makes the same motions to the
right as the other does to the left.

Most work is accomplished when both hands start work
at the same time, and when the motions can be made at
the same relative position on each side of a central fore
and aft vertical plane dividing the worker's body sym-
metrically.

Even if motions cannot be planned to be similar for
each hand and performed simultaneously, the plane in
which the work is to be done should be carefully located.

If motions are so arranged as to be balanced, as sug-
gested, it is possible not only to take advantage of automa-
ticity, but also to cut down jar to the body. It is on this
well-known principle that the shockless jarring machine is

VARIABLES OF THE MOTION 69

built. Balanced motions counteract each other. The result
is, less bracing of the body is necessary, and less fatigue
ensues.

COMBINATION WITH OTHER MOTIONS, AND SEQUENCE

A motion may be combined with motions that are
(a) similar to it, and (b) dissimilar to it.

(a) If the motions combined are similar to it, advantage
must be taken of the automaticity. Care must also be
taken that all the motions made in a series of similar
motions are necessary. Sometimes one effective motion
is preferable to several not so effective.

Examples. — i . When tapping a brick down to grade
with a trowel, one brisk tap will do the work as well as
several light taps, and with much less time and effort.

2 . If it is necessary to spread mortar on a face tier, one
stroke of the trowel will do the work as well as several.

(b) If the motions combined are dissimilar, two motions
may often be transformed into one.

Example. — The motion used to spread mortar may be
combined with the motion used to butter the end of the
brick laid just before the mortar was thrown. Thus, the
two operations may be transformed into one, and a saving
of time and motions will result. In fact, so doing may
have other distinct advantages, such as leaving better
keying for plastering direct upon the wall.

This subject of combinations of motions can barely be

70 MOTION STUDY

touched here. Its full treatment involves all other vari-
ables, and it can never be considered standardized till
each separate motion is a standard.

COST

The cost of motions, absolute and relative, is a subject
too large for any person, firm, or corporation to hope to
cover. If complete data are ever to be gathered on it, the
cost keeping, recording, and deducing will have to be done
by the government.

But all work done by the individual investigator will
result in real cost reducing, with increase of output, which
is the ultimate purpose of all motion study.

The relative cost of labor and material must be considered.

Examples. — i. A bricklayer should never stop to pick
up dropped mortar. The mortar dropped is not so val-
uable as the motions necessary to save it.

2. That quality of mortar that is easiest handled by
the bricklayer is usually cheapest. The cost of grinding
up the lumps in the sand, cement, and lime is less than the
cost of the motions necessary to pick the lumps out with
a trowel.

3. It is usually cheaper to fill a closer, say less than one-
half a brick in size, on the interior tiers, with even the best
of cement, than it is to cut a special piece of brick to fit or
to walk a few steps to find one the right size. The extra
cost of the mortar is negligible compared with the cost of
the motions.

VARIABLES OF THE MOTION 71

The relative cost of motions of higher and lower grades A/
of labor must also be considered.

It is obvious that, other things being equal, it is cheaper
to have a low-priced man instead of a high-priced man
make the same motion; but only the most careful study
can determine all of the motions that could be taken from
the high-priced man and allotted to one or more grades of
lower-priced men. This can never be wholly or properly
accomplished until our present trades, with their inher-
ited conditions and traditions, have been reclassified to
meet modern conditions.

In some trades it is very difficult to effect such division
of work, as unions are opposed to having anything relating
to skilled work done by laborers. ;

Examples. — i. In the most highly unionized districts
carpenters only are allowed to unload the rough lumber
from the cars, and none but carpenters are allowed to
transport, lift, and erect, as well as to fabricate it.

2. In bricklaying the case is slightly different. The
work of transporting the brick to the place where they are
to be laid has always been done by tenders and laborers.
The bricklayer never wheels or carries brick. This is a
tradition long handed down. Yet he is most jealous that
no part of his own work shall be done by a tender or
a laborer.

During the time that brick construction was practically"
without competitors in its field, the bricklayer could insist
on his ancient privileges and prosper.

72 MOTION STUDY

The inroads of concrete, both plain and reinforced, how-
ever, have changed conditions, and the bricklayer himself
is, more than any other one factor, the cause of many cases
of substitutions of concrete for brick.

The architecture of any country is determined by the
relative cost of building materials in place, and the history
of the world shows that the way to get the most of any one
thing used is to make it the lowest in price.

The one thing that will reduce the price of brickwork
more than any other is to reduce the cost of the motions.

After the laws underlying motion study have all been
applied, the cost of motions can still be reduced from one-
third to one-half by separating the motions of the brick-
layer into at least two classes, such as, for example:

1. Those that require skill.

2. Those that require nothing but strength, endurance,
and speed.

Those that require skill should be divided into several
classes, according to the amount of skill required; those
that chiefly require skill should be handled by mechanics,
and those that chiefly require strength, endurance, and
speed should be handled by specially trained laborers.
This is the only way to enable brickwork to compete with
concrete, when all of the architects, engineers, owners,
and contractors shall have learned the full possibilities of
concrete.

It will be urged that such division of the work of
bricklaying will lower die general skill of the bricklayers

VARIABLES OF THE MOTION 73

as a class. Far from it! All operations requiring skill
will remain in the hands of the bricklayer, who, escaping
all work that unskilled hands could do, will have the more
time and energy to devote to the "art" element of his work.

But we are not at this time discussing "brickwork as a
lost art" -we cite bricklaying here as an example of the
cost of motions, the result of the effects of cost of motions,
and of the possibilities and importance of motion study as
a method of attack in cost reducing and in standardizing
the trades for the greatest possible economy.

What greater service can the bricklayer do both his trade
and the people who own or occupy houses than to reduce
the cost of the motions in brickwork without reducing his
own wages or increasing his hours?

The elimination of wastes is the problem that has been
forced to the attention of the entire world to-day, and of
America particularly. The elimination of wastes in the
trades offers the largest field for savings.

Every trade must be reclassified, and must have the
brawn motions separated from the skill motions. Scien-
tific division of the work to be done is as sure to result in
higher wages and lower production costs as did F. W.
Taylor's separating the planning from the performing.

The reason that our country is not astounded and con-
fused at the appalling unnecessary loss to its inhabitants
on account of unnecessary, wasteful, and improper mo-
tions of its workers is due to ignorance of the existence of
this loss, and to ignorance of any method of eliminating it.

-. ,»

74 MOTION STUDY

The loss due to the present classification of the trades
alone is probably more than sufficient to pension, under
full pay, one-half of the workers of the country; is cer-
tainly enough to enable all of the women and children in
the trades to remain out of the trades and be paid at
their regular wages.

While such action is not even recommended, the illus-
tration is used to emphasize the enormous waste going
on daily and yearly.

That we go on year after year submitting to this waste
because our present trades are handled in accordance
with ancient conditions entirely out of place in our pres-
ent civilization, is no longer necessary and without
excuse.

Let the government t:all its scientific managerial experts
together and make a test of one trade, reclassify it, and
publish the data. The object lesson thus presented will
cause to be taken the necessary further steps to remedy
the present system of handling the trades. The workers will
each be able to earn higher wages when the unions see that
they are benefited, and the labor interests will cooperate.
The cost of living will be reduced as by no other means,
» and all this by scientifically reclassifying the trades!

DIRECTION

In most cases, the direction of a motion that is most
economical is the one that utilizes gravitation the most.
Oftentimes delivering material to a high-priced work-

VARIABLES OF THE MOTION

man by leaving the material in a high position also makes
easy unloading for the low-priced workman.

Example. — Stacking up packs 2 feet high saves motions,
and saves stooping when the laborer unloads his trucket.
(See Fig. 21.)

" Direction" admirably serves as an illustration of the

Fig. 21. — Trucket for storing reserve packs stacked up 2 ft. high,
to save stooping when it is being unloaded.

close interrelation of the variables. It is closely con-
nected with "path." It involves discussions of anatomy,
acceleration, and speed. It demands consideration of all
variables of surroundings, equipment, and tools.

The best " direction of motion" is not only important
in itself for increase of output; it must also be kept con-
stantly in mind in standardizing the placing of both
materials and men.

76 MOTION STUDY

EFFECTIVENESS

Effectiveness has been touched upon in discussing
" combination with other motions."

An effective motion is one that produces the desired
result. Oftentimes whole processes, methods, and oper-
ations can be so changed as to make the succeeding
motions much more effective.

Example. --The introduction of the fountain trowel,

Fig. 22. — The Fountain Trowel.

used in connection with an ordinary trowel, made each
motion in handling mortar much more effective. (See
Figs. 19, 22.)

FOOT-POUNDS OF WORK ACCOMPLISHED
After all, a human being or a work animal is a power
plant, and is subject to nearly all the laws that govern
and limit the power plant. It is a law of motion study

VARIABLES OF THE MOTION 77

that, other things being equal, the less number of footr ( j
pounds of work done by the workman, the smaller percent4
age of working hours he must devote to rest to overcome^
fatigue.

It is therefore of great importance in obtaining the
largest possible output that the work shall be so arranged
and the workman so placed that he can do his work with
the least possible amount of foot-pounds of work done per
unit of output accomplished. This is where the philan-
thropic employer has often been rewarded without know-
ing it. In his desire to make conditions such that the
workman was most comfortable while working, he .re-
duced the number of foot-pounds of work to that which
was absolutely necessary to do the work. He surrounded V
the workman with conditions that enabled him to have no
fatigue, except that which was acquired from the motions
of the work itself: He made conditions such that the
workman was enabled to overcome the fatigue from his
motions in the quickest possible time. (See Fig. 23.)

INERTIA AND MOMENTUM OVERCOME

There are two ways by which the amount of inertia
and momentum may be reduced.

i. By standardizing surroundings and equipment so
that the inertia and the momentum are limited to practi-
cally that of the materials, and not the materials plus
arms and body.

78 MOTION STUDY

Example. — Picking up ninety pounds of brick at one
lifting.

2. By so standardizing motions that as few starts and
stops as possible occur from the time the material leaves
the sto?k pile till the time it is in its final resting place in
the work.

Example. — In laying brick by the " pick-and-dip "
method on face tiers, a brick is lifted in one hand and a
trowel full of mortar in the other. The brick must come
to a full stop in the bricklayer's hand while the mortar is
being laid and the bed prepared, and then move to its
final resting place, unless brick and mortar are dropped in
two different places.

In laying brick by the " stringing- mortar " method, the
mortar is laid and the bed prepared before the bricks are
lifted. The brick are conveyed from the pack to the wall
without interruption or delay.

Standard methods of performing work may enable the
worker to utilize the momentum.

Example. — • If the bricks are conveyed from the stock
platform or pack to the wall with no stops, the momentum
can be made to do valuable work by assisting to shove
the joints full of mortar. If, instead of being utilized,
the momentum must be overcome by the muscles of the
bricklayer, fatigue, not full joints, will result.

The ideal case is to move the brick in a straight
path and make the contact with the wall overcome the
momentum.

VARIABLES OF THE MOTION 79

LENGTH

A general rule of motion economy is to make the short-
est motions possible.
Eliminating unnecessary distances that workers' hands

Fig. 23. — Common type of Trestle Horse Staging. Bricklayers cannot be
expected to lay as many brick per day when working in this position as
when standing up between a wall and a stock platform, each 2 ft. high.

and arms must travel, will eliminate miles of motions per
man in a working day as compared with usual practice.

Example. — Put the wheelbarrow body as close as pos-
sible to the pile that is to be put into it, so that the dis-
tance the packets are carried from the pile to the barrow,

80 MOTION STUDY

or the sand from the pile to the barrow, will be the shortest
distance possible.

Of the necessary distance to be walked or reached,
have as much of it as possible done by the low-priced
man, and have as little of it as possible done by the high-
priced man.

Example. — - With brick, have the tender put the pack
of brick as near the final resting place of the brick as con-
ditions will permit, so that when the high-priced man picks
up a pack of, say, eighteen bricks, he requires a short mo-
tion only.

Have the high-priced worker always use first the stock
that is nearest, this rule requiring the shortest motions
in conveying the stock to its final resting place.

Example. — In picking up brick from a packet or a
scaffold the nearest brick should be picked up first. The
brick that are farthest away serve as a reserve stock pile,
to be picked up only in the emergency of not having any
others nearer to pick up. It may be that the brick farthest
away may not need to be used on that piece of work at
all, or at least their place will not be occupied so many
times by bricks to be transported with longer motions.

Standard tools, equipment, and surroundings are essen-
tial if length of motions is to be made standard.

As already said when discussing clothes, the workman
of the present should have even his overalls, belt, and
clothes so designed that they will hold the different kinds
of tools that are oftenest used, so that they may be picked

VARIABLES OF THE MOTION 8 1

up in the shortest time — that is, with pockets for nails,
clips, clamps, etc. The tools should be so placed that
the least and shortest motions can be used after they are
picked up, as cartridges are placed in a cartridge belt.

NECESSITY

The necessity of the motion is such an important vari-
able that an investigator is tempted at first glance to
divide all motions into necessary and unnecessary, and
to eliminate with one stroke those that appear to him
unnecessary. A more thorough investigation will be
apt to prove that no such summary elimination is
advisable.

A motion may be an unnecessary motion in a necessary
sequence, or it may be a necessary motion in a certain
sequence, but the whole sequence may be unnecessary or
inadvisable.

Example. — In opening a paper bag of cement the aver-
age untrained laborer usually cuts the bag in two and re-
moves the paper in several pieces and with many motions.
The correct way is to cut the bottom with a shovel and
pull the bag upward in one piece by grasping the bag just
above the string.

This example shows both how motions may be unneces-
sary in themselves and how they may belong to a sequence
that is unnecessary.

The only final solution as to the necessity of a motion
will come when the trades are completely standardized.

82 MOTION STUDY

It is impossible to determine whether or not a motion is
absolutely necessary until the method of doing the work
in which it is used is standard.

Examples. — i. Motions which were relatively proved
necessary in laying brick by the "pick-and-dip" method
or " stringing-mortar " method, the brick being lifted from
the stock platform, became absolutely unnecessary when
the "packet-on-the-wall" method of handling brick was
adopted.

2. The same thing is true of motions eliminated by
handling mortar in a fountain trowel.

The final solution of the problem of necessity of motions
will be discussed later, though the subject is so large that
no amount of discussion could do more than touch it.

PATH

The determination of the path which will result in the
greatest economy of motion and the greatest increase of
output is a subject for the closest investigation and the
most scientific determination. Not until data are accu-
mulated by trained observers can standard paths be
adopted. The laws underlying physics, physiology, and
psychology must be considered and followed. In the
meantime, merely applying the results of observation will
reduce motions and costs and increase output to an
amazing degree.

The path most desirable is usually that which permits
gravitation to assist in carrying the material to place.

VARIABLES OF THE MOTION 83

Example. — We have found that the most economical
height for laying brick is twenty-four inches above where
the bricklayer stands, while it is most economical to pick
the brick from a height about three feet above where the
bricklayer stands; that is, about one foot higher than the
top of the wall where the brick is to be laid.

The path is affected by the direction that the material
is to be shoved as it moves into its final resting place.

Examples. — When the packet is placed on the wall it
should be placed so that the brick can be picked up and
moved in a comparatively straight line with the direction
that the brick will be shoved for filling a joint.

In theory the ideal path would be in a line of quickest
speed from the stock platform to the wall.

In practice it is seldom that the most economical path for
carrying a brick or mortar from the stock platform to the
wall is exactly a straight line from one to the other. It
will generally be most economical to move the brick in
the path that will bend the arms the least and that will
permit almost a swing from the shoulder.

PLAYING FOR POSITION

Each motion should be made so as to be most eco-
nomically combined with the next motion, like the bil-
liard player who plays for position.

The direction in which a motion is made may affect the
time required for a subsequent motion.

Example. — In laying brick the motion of placing the

84 MOTION STUDY

mortar for the end joint can be done quickest if it is done
in the direction of the next motion, such, for example, as
the next motion that puts the trowel in the position to
cut off the hanging mortar.

The sequence of motions in bricklaying, that determines *
when the particular motion is to be made that puts the
mortar in the end joint, depends upon whether the "pick-
and-dip" or the " stringing-mortar " method is used.

When the motions are made in the correct sequence,
many of them can be combined so that two, and in some
cases three, motions can be made as one motion, in but
little more time than is required for one motion.

Example. — Cutting off mortar, buttering the end of the
laid brick, and reaching for more mortar all as one motion,
in the "pick-and-dip" method.

SPEED

Usually, the faster the motions, the more output. There
are other advantages to speed of motions besides the fact
that they require less time. Speed increases momentum,
and this momentum may be utilized to do work.

Example. — The momentum of the brick helps to shove
the mortar better into the joint.

Again, high outputs are generally the result of the
habit of speed in motions. Habits of speed are hard to
form, and they are hard to break.

Next to fewest motions, speed of motions is the most
important factor of high record of outputs.

VARIABLES OF THE MOTION 85

The list of variables here given makes no claim to being
complete. The field of study is so immense that it is im-
possible as yet to give a complete and detailed method of
attack.

It will be noted in reading the discussion of the vari-
ables that it has been found extremely difficult to handle
each one separately. It is needless to tell the student, the
investigator, the cost-reducing manager, that, difficult as
the task is, for the best results each variable must be
studied alone. The effects of all variables but one must
be eliminated, or, better perhaps, all variables but one
must be maintained constant.

Quicker results may often be obtained by studying
several variables simultaneously, and for short jobs this
may be advisable. But for long jobs of repetitive work
there is no way so accurate and satisfactory as studying
one variable at a time.

CHAPTER V

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF MOTION
STUDY

WORK ACCOMPLISHED

CONSIDERED in relation to the time during which it has
been applied to the trades, scientific motion study can show
most satisfactory results.

The workers in the field as well as in the office have been
quick to appreciate and adopt the new methods suggested
by motion economy.

This has been especially the case in the crafts. Nearly
every proficient workman loves his trade. He loves the
joy of achievement. He can achieve most when useless
motions have been eliminated for him, and he welcomes
improvements, as the bricklayers have welcomed the brick
coming right side up on the packet.

MAGNITUDE or WORK TO BE DONE
To the casual reader it may seem that the task of evolv-
ing standard practice from usual present practice, and
from the best practice, is simply a case of observing, re-
cording, and eliminating. The student will see that it
requires the closest concentration to do even the necessary

scientific observing and recording, while to deduce and

XV ^ OF

--
PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF MOTION STUDY 87

systematize standard motions for any one trade would
furnish a life work for several trained scientists.

It is a difficult task for an inexperienced or untrained
observer to divide an operation correctly into its motions.
Enumerating the variables that affect each motion is a
task big enough to satisfy the most ambitious student of
waste elimination.

VALUE OF CHARTS

We have found it helpful in recording our observa-
tions to use charts. Some such form as that shown on
pages 88 and 89 is used.

This chart is one made during an observation of bricklay-
ing before the invention of the packet, the packet scaffold,
and the fountain trowel.

The operation of laying a brick was divided into the
motions of which it consisted (column i). The usual
(present) practice of the time (given as "the wrong way,"
column 2) showed the units into which the operation was
divided. The best practice of the time ("the right way,"
column 3, now obsolete) was charted in such a way that
its relation from a motion standpoint to the usual practice
was clearly shown.

Column 4 shows how the usual practice may be trans-
formed into the best practice. It would serve as an in-
struction card to the workman, showing him not only
where his method needed to be improved but also exactly
how to improve it.

MOTION STUDY

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PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF MOTION STUDY 89

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out this space if the brick is held s
•ick is kid on mortar it presses moi
i brick. It takes no longer to cut

ien this mortar is cut off it can be
laid, or it can be carried on the trt

he mortar is of the right consistenc;
d, and the bricks are as wet as poi
the trowel will be necessary.

1°

not cut off the mortar oftener tha
, do not let it fall to the ground;
another motion by throwing it at
as another motion.

:al number of motions per brick.

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90 MOTION STUDY

This chart, together with a plan showing the workman
where he should put the stock and where he should place
his feet (Fig. 14), and with pictures showing how he should
lay the brick, etc., proved most successful for instruction
as well as for recording.

At first glance this chart, and the others like it, which
we used at that time, seem very crude. In fact, compared
to what has since been done to standardize operations,
they are crude. But they mark a distinct phase of motion
study. They show plainly, as careful reading will prove,
that an earnest study of motions will automatically pro-
mote the growth of the study.

For example, study of column 4 in the sample chart
given led to the invention of the packet scaffold, the
packet, the fountain trowel, and several other of the best
devices, and the upacket-on- the- wall" method now used
in brickwork.

These inventions in their turn necessitated an entirely
new set of motions to perform the operation of laying a
brick.

i So, likewise, the progression also went on before the
days of conscious motion study: observation, explanation,
invention, elimination, and again observation, in an upward
helix of progress.

The great point to be observed is this: Once the vari-
ables of motions are determined, and the laws of underly-
ing motions and their efficiency deduced, conformity to
these laws will result in standard motions, standard tools,

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF MOTION STUDY 9 1

standard conditions, and standard methods of performing
the operations of the trades.

Conformity to these laws allows standard practice to be
attained and used. If the standard methods are deduced
before the equipment, tools, surroundings, etc., are stand-
ardized, the invention of these standard means is as sure
as the appearance of a celestial body at the time and place
where mathematics predicts that it will appear.

It is as well to recognize first as last that real progress
from the best present method to the standard method can
never be made solely by elimination. The sooner this is
recognized the better. Elimination is often an admirable
makeshift. But the only real progress comes through a
reconstruction of the operation, building it up of stand-
ardized units, or elements.

It is also well to recognize the absolute necessity of the
trained scientific investigator. The worker cannot, by him-
self, arrange to do his work in the most economical manner
in accordance with the laws of motion study. Oftentimes,
in fact nearly always, the worker will believe that the new
method takes longer than the old method. At least he
will be positive that many parts, or elements, of the pro-
cess when done under the new method take longer than
under the old style, and will not be in sympathy with the
scheme because he is sure that the new way is not so
efficient as his old way. All of which shows that the worker
himoelf cannot tell which are the most advantageous
motions. He must judge by the fatigue that he feels, or

Q2 MOTION STUDY

else by the quantity of output accomplished in a given
time. To judge by the quantity of output accomplished in
a given time is more of a test of effort than a test of mo-
tion study, and oftentimes that element that will produce
the most output is the one that will cause the least fatigue.

The difference in amount of merit between any two
methods can perhaps be best determined by timing the
elements of the motions used in each. This is the method
of attack usually accepted as best, because it separates each
motion into its variables and analyzes them one at a time.
It is out of the question to expect a workman to do such
timing and to do his work at the same time. Furthermore,
it is an art in itself to take time-study observations, an art
that probably takes longer to master than does shorthand,
typewriting, telegraphy, or drafting.

Few workers have had an opportunity to learn the art
of making and using time-study observations, because
our school educators have not had any mental grasp
of the subject themselves. Add to the difficulties to be
overcome in acquiring the knowledge of observing, re-
cording, and analyzing the time-study records, the knowl-
edge necessary to build up synthetically the correct method
with each element strictly in accordance with the laws
of motion economy each by itself and when used together
in the particular determined sequence, and you will see
the reason why the worker by himself has not devised,
cannot, and never will be expected to devise, the ultimate
method of output. It does not then, after all, seem so

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF MOTION STUDY 93

queer that the workman's output can always be doubled
and oftentimes more than tripled by scientific motion study.
Again, scientifically attained methods only can become
Ultimate methods.

Any method which seems after careful study to have
attained perfection, using absolutely the least number of
most effective, shortest motions, may be thrown aside
when a new way of transporting or placing material or
men is introduced. It is pitiful to think of the time, money,
strength, and brains that have been wasted on devising
and using wonderfully clever but not fundamentally de-
rived methods of doing work, which must inevitably be
discarded for the latter.

The standardizing of the trades will utilize every atom
of such heretofore wasted energy.

The standardizing of the trades affords a definite best
method of doing each element.

Having but one standard method of doing each element
divides the amount of time-study data necessary to take
by a number equal to the number of different equally good
methods that could be used.

The greatest step forward can be made only when time-
study data can be made by one and used by all. A system
of interchange and cooperation in the use of the data of
scientific management can then be used by all persons
interested.

This reduction and simplification of taking time study is
the real reason for insistence upon making and maintain-

94 MOTION STUDY

ing standards for the largest down to the smallest insig-
nificant tool or device used.

Much toward standardizing the trades has already been
done. In this, as in almost countless other lines of activity,
the investigator turns oftenest with admiration to the
work of Frederick W. Taylor. It is the never-ceasing
marvel concerning this man that age cannot wither nor
custom stale his work. After many a weary day's study
the investigator awakes from a dream of greatness to
find that he has only worked out a new proof for a problem
that Taylor has already solved.

Time study, the instruction card, functional foreman-
ship, the differential rate piece method of compensation,
and numerous other scientifically derived methods of de-
creasing costs and increasing output and wages — these are
by no means his only contributions toward standardizing
the trades whose value it would be difficult to overesti-
mate; they are but a few of the means toward attaining
standards which have been placed by Taylor, their dis-
coverer, within the hands of any man willing to use them.

FUTURE WORK IN STANDARDIZING THE TRADES
The great need to-day in standardizing the trades is for
cooperation. In other times all excellent methods or
means were held as "trade secrets," sometimes lost to the
world for generations until rediscovered. The day for
this is past. Thinkers of to-day recognize that the work
to be done is so great that, given all that every one has

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF MOTION STUDY 95

accomplished and is accomplishing, there is room and to
spare for every worker who cares to enter the field. Co-
operation and team work is the crying need.

Conservation and comparison of knowledge, experi-
ments, data and conclusions are what we need. The
various engineering journals are to be commended for
recognizing the importance of this, and for furnishing an
excellent means for recording and spreading much needed
information.

The ideal conservator of knowledge in this, as in all
other branches, would be the United States government.
The government should maintain a permanent bureau, with
experiment stations, as is done with the Department of
Agriculture.

Individual investigators, corporations, and colleges, all
would be willing to turn over the results of their work to
such a government bureau. The colleges would cooperate
with such a bureau, as do the agricultural colleges with
the Department of Agriculture. The bulletins of such a
bureau would be invaluable to the men in the trades, as
are the agricultural bulletins to the farmers.

The Department of Agriculture is an excellent model.
The form for a department or bureau of trades is all at
hand. It is only necessary to translate the language of
agriculture into the language of labor. It is only through
such a bureau that the trades can formally be standardized.

Such a bureau would have two main tasks: (i) To sub-
classify the trades; (2) To standardize the trades.

96 MOTION STUDY

The first task should be successfully completed before
the second is undertaken.

We have spoken briefly, in considering cost of motions,
, o" the necessity of separating those motions that require
* skill from those that require nothing but strength., and
{ endurance.

This sub-classifying of the trades according to the types
or grades of motions that they use, or according to the
brawn, brain, training, and skill required to make the
motions, will cut down production costs. It will raise
the standards of all classes. It will do away with differ-
ences between employers and employees. It will eliminate
unnecessary waste. It will raise the wages of all workers.
It will reduce the cost of living.

We might call such a sub-classification as desired a
functional " classification of the trades.

For example, for brickwork we recommend five classes:

Class A. — Ornamental and exterior face brick and
molded terra cotta.

Class B. — Interior face tiers that do not show at com-
pletion, where strong, plumb, and straight work only is
needed.

Class C. — Filling tiers where only strength is needed.

Class D. — Putting fountain trowels and brick packs on
the wall near the place, and in the manner where the other
three classes can reach them with greatest economy of
motion.

Class E. — Pack loaders, brick cullers, and stage builders.

AAl

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF MOTION STUDY 97

The pay of the A and B classes should be considerably
higher than is customary for bricklayers. The pay of the
C, D, and E classes should be lower than is customary for
bricklayers, but much higher than the pay of laborers.
This classification will raise the pay of all five classes
higher than they could ever obtain in the classes that they
would ordinarily work in under the present system, yet
the resulting cost of the labor on brickwork would be
much less, and each class would be raised in its standing /)
and educated for better work and higher wages.

In the case of brickwork this new classification is a cry-
ing necessity, as the cost of brickwork must be reduced
to a point where it can compete* with concrete. Im-
provements in making, methods of mixing, transporting,
and densifying concrete in the metal molds of to-day
have put the entire brickwork proposition where it can be
used for looks only, because for strength, imperviousness,
quickness of construction, lack of union labor troubles,
and low cost, brickwork cannot compete with concrete
under present conditions.

Having sub-classified the trades, the second step is to
standardize them.

And both classification and standardization demand
motion study.

The United States government has already spent mil-
lions and used many of the best of minds on the subject
of motion study as applied to war; the motions of the
sword, gun, and bayonet drill are wonderfully perfect from

98 MOTION STUDY

! the standpoint of the requirements of their use. This same
study should be applied to the arts of peace.

It is obvious that this work must and will be done in
time. But there is inestimable loss in every hour of delay.
The waste of energy of the workers in the industries to-day
is pitiful. But it is far more important that the coming
generation of workers should be scientifically trained.

The science of management of the future will demand
that the trades be taught in accordance with the motion
standards of a United States Bureau of Standardization
of Mechanical Trades. The present method of teaching
an apprentice is the most unbusinesslike event that takes
place in any of our industrial institutions.

We have never heard of a trades school, manual training
school, or technical school that makes any attempt to
solve questions of motion study. The usual process is to
teach a student or apprentice to do his work well first,
and after he has finally accomplished the art of making or
doing the thing in question, then to expect him to learn
to do it quickly.^ This process is a relic of the dark ages.
A novice should be taught to do what he is trying to do
with certain definite motions, and to repeat the opera-
tion until he is able automatically to use the standard
motions and do good work. //

If an apprentice bricklayer, blacksmith, or tool sharpener,
for example, is not instructed to count his motions when
doing a certain piece of work, he will surely get into the
habit of making extra motions that cannot be omitted

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF MOTION STUDY 99

later without almost as much effort as that spent in learn-
ing the trade. There is little incentive for an old mechanic
to teach a boy so that he will excel his teacher, and per-
haps run him out of a job about the time that he, the
apprentice, becomes expert.

One of the most common causes for neglecting the
important subject of motion study is that the boss of the
establishment is not himself really a master of the trade
that is being taught, or, if he was master once, has for-
gotten it because there are no books or systems that have
so described, charted, and illustrated his trade as to refresh
his memory^

Again the teacher is often a mechanic who is not trained
to impart what knowledge he has, has never studied peda-
gogy, and is expected to do a full day's work at the same
time that he is teaching his apprentice.

The arts and trades of human beings should be studied,
charted, photographed, and motion-pictured, and every em-
ployer, apprentice, and student should be able to receive
bulletins of his trade for a sum equal to the cost to a farmer
of a bulletin from the Department of Agriculture instruct-
ing how to increase the outputs of cows, hens, and bees.

One great aid toward cutting down the work of every one
out of the trades as well as in, would be the standardizing
of our written alphabet to conform to the laws of motion
study. The most offhand analysis of our written alpha-
bet shows that it is full of absolutely useless strokes, all of
which require what are really wasted motions.

100 MOTION STUDY

Consider the single example of the first stroke on the
first letter of each word. Here is a motion that can be
eliminated wholly. While its existence is necessary in type
that represents handwriting or imitates engraved plate
work, and in enameled separate letters of window signs, its
adoption and use in handwriting is of no purpose and is
wrong from the standpoint of motion economy.

Each letter of our written alphabet is a natural devia-
tion from our printed alphabet that is the result of leaving
the pencil on the paper.

Now the time has arrived for revising our written lan-
guage by means of a new scientifically invented alphabet
specially devised for the purpose of securing clearer writ-
ing, made of connected letters, each designed of itself and in
connection with all the other letters, so that it conforms to
the laws of motion economy. This is not a suggestion that
we should adopt stenographic signs for words or sounds,
although a general knowledge of one standard steno-
graphic system would also be a great benefit to a nation.

The suggestion is, that in as much as it is the aim of
our nation that all citizens should be able to read and
write, a new written alphabet should be devised for us
that shall conform to the laws of motion study, — that we
all can increase either our outputs in writing or else that we
all may be able to do such writing as we are obliged to do
in less time.

It is to be hoped that an international society of highly
trained educators, similar to those composing the Simplified

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF MOTION STUDY IOI

Spelling Board, may be called together, as was the Sim-
plified Spelling Board, to give this matter immediate
attention. A written alphabet for all languages of the
world should be determined and used not only by the
users of each language, but also by the societies advocating
and promulgating such world's second or international lan-
guages as Volapiik and Esperanto.

One great drawback to the more rapid progress of any
artificial or second language has been the difficulty of
reading the correspondence between enthusiasts who were
proficient in speaking their thoroughly agreed upon inter-
national language.

It would not be desirable to abandon our present written -*-
alphabet. There are now literally hundreds of different
styles of lettering that all can read, yet how few of them
can any of us make with pen or pencil.

To add one more style of lettering to the now existing
hundreds could scarcely be considered as confusing by even
those who are constitutionally opposed to changes in any-
thing.

Therefore, there should be devised one more style of
lettering, specially adapted to cutting down the time of
writing and adding to the general legibility when written
quickly.

Let this be our second written language. Let us use
the present system and the new one. Let the generations
to come have the benefit of the application of science to
their future writing, and let the present style be also used,

102 MOTION STUDY

provided it does not die the natural death in the combat
of the survival of the fittest.

We may have to wait for international coinage, inter-
national postage stamps, international courts, international
arbitration, and international weights and measures; but
there can be no reason for not having an international
system of written alphabetical characters, and while hav-
ing it let us decide in favor of that system that fulfills
the requirements of motion study, both of the hand in
making, and of the eye in reading.

THE FIRST STEPS

In the meantime, while we are waiting for the politicians
and educators to realize the importance of this subject and
to create the bureaus and societies to undertake and com-
plete the work, we need not be idle. There is work in
abundance to be done.

Motion study must be applied to all the industries.
Our trade schools and colleges can:

1. Observe the best work of the best workers.

2. Photograph the methods used.

3. Record the methods used.

4. Record outputs.
'5. Record costs.

6. Deduce laws.

7. Establish laboratories "for trying out laws."

8. Embody laws in instructions.

9. Publish bulletins.

10. Cooperate to spread results and to train the rising
generation.

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF MOTION STUDY 103

This is the era — now. We have a scientific method of
attack, and we have also scientific methods of teaching.

The stereoscopic camera and stereoscope, the motion
picture machines, and the stereopticon enable us to observe,
record, and teach as one never could in the past.

The following motion study pictures, charts, and diagrams are typical
and have been used for teaching journeymen and apprentice bricklayers
our standard methods.

Picx-AND-Dip METHOD — WORKING RIGHT TO LEFT

Fig. 25. — Cutting off mortar before the

Fig. 24. — Spreading mortar on exterior brick is laid on exterior face tier,

face tier.

Fig. 26. — Buttering the end of the laid Fig. 27. — Cutting off the mortar after the
brick on the exterior face tier. brick is laid on the exterior face tier.

104 MOTION STUDY

PICK-AND-DIP METHOD — WORKING RIGHT TO LEFT (Continued)

Fig. 28. — Throwing mortar on interior Fig. 29. — Spreading mortar on interior
face tier. face tier.

Fig. 30. — Cutting off mortar before brick Fig. 31 . — Tapping down brick after lay-
is laid. ing on interior face tier.

Fig. 32. — Cutting off mortar after brick
is laid on interior face tier (here work- Fig. 33. — Handling mortar for two brick
ing left to right). at one time on interior face tier.

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF MOTION STUDY 105

STRINGING-MORTAR METHOD

Fig. 34. — Working right to left. — Spread- Fig. 35. — Working left to right. — But-
ing mortar on exterior face tier. tering end of laid brick on exterior face

tier.

'ig. 36. — Working left to right. — Cutting
off mortar after brick is laid on exte-
rior face tier.

Fig- 37- — Working right to left, — Spread-
ing mortar on the interior face tier.

j. 38.— Working left to right.— Cutting

mortar after brick is laid on exte- Fig. 39.— Working left to right.— Spread-
rior face tier. ing mortar on the interior face tier.

io6

MOTION STUDY

STRINGING-MORTAR METHOD (Continued)

Fig. 40. — Working left to right. — Spread-
ing mortar on the interior face tier.

Fig. 42. — Working right to left. — Butter-
ing right-hand end of brick in hand to
be laid on interior face tier.

Fig. 41. — Working left to right. — Throw-
ing mortar on the interior face tier.

The " pack-on-the-wall "method is the
latest development and is an actual direct
result of motion study. It has again
changed the entire method of laying brick
by reducing the kind, number, sequence
and length of motions. It reduces the
fatigue of the bricklayer and he is there-
fore able to make more rapid motions.

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF MOTION STUDY 107

s ~ S 2

.s -ij i

"o «2 ij c3

2 32 1

I U I

Jr
¥

*i**,|;*iue

B 8-1 Jl<

Way,
Brick,

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O

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&1 §-^s"i

•" w *-• u .ti P

o •;

io8

MOTION STUDY

This shows conect height of stock plaifon
xtoiior face tier is being built header

SECTION THROUGH A-A

\ —

jacked up at all -
2—. | — °1 . tier is being built

/ it should never

Ink'

ajj.i

«M

isc.l

JHM

| 2
1

Thickness
H plus-4"foi

if 10 brick.

-clearance *

(

m$i

1- ' /face tier, and neve
/ / below the top of
/ /the filling tiers, un-

fit.:
5 B

54 6
18 5
15 4
6 3

/ / I . v t^g -tierS "

4 4

3 2

2M"

1 /face tier, in which cas

^^S^

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/ the top of filling tiers.

I.
V

„

1R 5

- -a.

'--

_3 «

54 6

1 1

51
1

s .

in 5
4

Fig. 43. — Location of the pack on the wall while building the exterior
face tiers. Pack-on-the-wall method.

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF MOTION STUDY 109

A
f

rorth.l«.t
kMtmlfh

lisplaremtnt i
line with this

*hen jacking u
faceofthil u

ScadoM. t
right

le ends of a

planks 0

a»|

>er must be

If tend.,
cleats up
handle!

run U too sp
again* und.
e 3 planks a

\_,

•SC— tH

S." a ~ of hudwood. or Ts. Ls. or l«. etc. for face blkk left oter |
1 1 C (P when read, to back-up

—

needed heieaj the

/ G3

=fcd=

BIS

ngy, nail
-.ide and

This spac
brick si1

—

> for brick

the other
ace of the

i"
I

» 1

B17

(_0«e no ph
more than

Wheeler. piT^f
top layer of, ,Un
| 4 so that the wheel
1 -J | Of up at the end
ll

0". ide nor.

... rj

Itk*

,/Kt

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J

—

\ /

—

lr 1.

-2-5^'

This^pac
biiik sp

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III!

La, cen

against

erj.lank ha
this uprigh

4—7-

H-

-11^-H

—

Sir,

-----

%^-Hj

SECTION THROUGH A-A

Fig. 44. — Location of the packs while building the interior face and
filling tiers. Pack-on-the-wall method.

HO MOTION STUDY

The economic value of motion study has been proved
by the fact that by means of it workmen's outputs have
been more than tripled, production costs lowered, and wages
increased simultaneously.

This book is written for the express purpose of calling
to the attention of the nation that what has been done in
a few trades can be done in each and every trade.

The most important matter before the public to-day is
the creation and operation of a department at Washington
for discovering, collecting, conserving and disseminating
data relating to Taylor's method of Intensive Management
commonly called Scientific Management.

INDEX

Acceleration, 65-67.

amount of, 65.

effects of, 65.

effects on output of, 66.

means for obtaining, 65.
Alphabet, written, standardizing of,

99-
"American Magazine," article on

fatigue in, 24.
article on value of entertainment

in, 48.
Anatomy, 10-12.

adapting equipment to, 10.
adapting surroundings to, 10.
adapting tools to, 10.
adapting work to, 10.
usefulness of study of, 10.
Appliances, 43~45-

relation to motions of, 43.
Apprentices, supplying of tools to, 59.
Apprenticeship, defects in present

system of, 41.
Automaticity, 67-69.,
value of, 67.

Brawn, 13, 14.

arrangement of work to utilize, 13.

influence on instruction cards of,
14.

importance as a variable of, 13.

variation in, 13.

Bricklaying, necessity for division
of work in, 71-73.

reducing of cost in, 72.

value of illustrations from, 8.
Brickwork, subclassifying of, 96.

Charts, form for, 87.

place in motion study of, 90.

value of, 87-94.
Clothes, 45-46.

help of proper, 45.

hindrance of improper, 45.

importance of utility of, 80.

motion-economy value of, 46.

necessity for specially adapted,
46.

shortening of motions by, 80.

Color, 46-47.

motion saving properties of, 46.

selection of, 46.

stimulating effect of, 46.
Combination with other motions,

69-70.

Conservation, congress for, i.
Contentment, 14-15.

advantages of, 15.

effect on fatigue of, 15.

effect on output of, 14.
Cooling, 49, 50.
Cooperation, need for, 94.
Cost, 70-74.

deducing, 70.

keeping, 70.

of living, reduction of, 74.

recording, 70.

reducing, 70.

relation to output of, 70.
Creed, 15-16.

definition of, 15.

grouping men according to, 15.

112

INDEX

Devices for eliminating fatigue, 56.
Diemer, Hugo — "Factory Organ-
ization and Administration," 50.
Direction, 74-75.

relation to other variables of, 75.

relation to "path" of, 75.
Division of work, necessity for, 71.

Earning power, 16-19.

classifying men according to, 16.
prescribing motions according to,

16.

Effectiveness, 76.
attaining of, 76.
definition of, 76.
Elimination of wastes, importance

of, 73-

Entertainment, 48-49.
effect on fatigue of, 49.
effect on health of, 49.
effect on output of, 48.
Equipment relation to standard

practice of, 91.
Experience, 19-23.

effect on learning of standard

methods of, 23.
influence of, 20.

"Factory organization and admin-
istration," 50.
Fatigue, 23-32.

"American Magazine," article on,
24.

causes of, 24.

eliminating devices, 56.

necessary, rest from, 29.

overcoming of, 24.

percentage of rest for, 25.

relation of quick motions to, 28.

relation of slow motions to, 28.

unnecessary, elimination of, 29.

First-class men, importance of using,

13-

First steps, the, 102.
Foot-pounds of work accomplished,

76-77.

relation to fatigue of, 77.
Fountain trowel, advantages of use

of, 54-

usefulness of, 76.
Future work in standardizing the

trades, 94-102.

Gantt, H. L., A. S. M. E. Paper,

Dec., 1908, 34.
"Work, Wages, and Profits," 33.

Government, place in scientific man-
agement of, 74.

Government bureau, need for, 95.

Gravity, application of, 62.

Habits, 32-33.

changing of, 68.

definition of, 32.

H. L. Gantt on, 33.

incorporating standard motions

into, 37.
Health, 33-34.

H. L. Gantt on, 34.

relation of work to, 34.
Heating, 49-50.

effect on clothing of, 50.

provision necessary for, 50.
High-priced man, arrangement of
material for, 75.

arranging distances for, 80.

cost of, 71.

prescribing work for, 17, 18.
Humidizing, 49.

provision necessary for, 50.

Inertia overcome, 77-78.
limiting of, 77.

INDEX

Interim system, place of motion

study in, 4.
Investigator, trained, need for, 91.

Large jobs, selection of men for,

23-

Length, 79-81.
Length of motions, effect of clothes

on, 80.
Lighting, 50-52.

advantages of proper, 51.

five tests of, 51.

influence on motions of, 50.

influence on output of, 50.

problems involved in, 52.

usual arrangement of, 50.
Low-priced man, arranging dis-
tances for, 80.

arranging of work of, 75.

cost of, 71.

definition of, 19.

prescribing work for, 17, 18.

Machines, demand for properly de-
signed, 62.

sets of motions for tending of, 61.
tending of, 61.
Magnitude of work to be done, 86-

87.
"Man and the Earth," Shaler's

book on, i.
Mechanical Trades, U. S. Bureau of,

98.

Methods, standard, use of momen-
tum in, 78.
Military system, place of motion

study in, 3.
Mode of living, 35.

effect on output of, 35.
Momentum overcome, 77-78.
limiting of, 77.
work done by, 78.

Motion, variables of the, 65-85.
Motion economy, utilization of, 86.
Motion study, aim of, 3.

cost reducing value of, 3.

description and outline of, 1-9.

earning capacity of workman in-
creased by, 2.

field of, 5.

immediate need of, 103.

increase in output by, 3.

method of attack of, 3.

necessity for, i.

past, present, and future of, 86-
no.

place in scientific management

of, 3-

possible economies of, i.

present stage of, 5.

problem presented by, 5.

savings by, 2.

steps in, 5.

steps in study of, 102.

successful applications of, 8.

usefulness to all types of manage-
ment of, 3.

value of, 4.
Motions, balanced, 68.

combination of, 69.

counting of, 98.

dissimilar, 69.

necessity for classifying of, 72.

planning of, 68.

sequence of, 69.

similar, 69.
Music, effects of, 48.

Necessity, 81-82.

importance of, 81.

use as a criterion of, 81.
Non-stooping scaffold, advantages

of, n, 12.
Nutrition, 35-36.

INDEX

Nutrition, importance of "welfare"

work on, 35.

lack of scientific data concerning,
35-

Output, effect of "Contentment"

on, 14.
influence of quality of the men

on, 13.

influence of surroundings on, 58.
relation to cost of, 70.

Packet, advantages of use of, 54.
Past, present, and future of motion

study, 86-110.
Path, 82-83.

determination of, 82.

ideal, 83.

relation of gravitation to, 82.
Penalties, 53.

relation of cost reducing to, 53.

stimulus of, 53.

Percentage of rest, provision for, 29.
Phonography, usefulness of, 48.
Playing for position, 83-84.

definition of, 83.

Quality of material, 52-53.

effect of output on, 52.

relation to standard motions of,

p.
Quality of men, importance of, 13,

52.

Reading, stimulus of, 48.
Reclassifying of trades, 73.
Reducing the cost of living, 96.
Rest, compulsory, 32.

provision for, 29.
Rest time, utilization of, 29, 32.
Reward, 53.

influence on cost reducing of, 53.

stimulus of, 53.

Savings by motion study, 2.
Science of management, demands of,

98.
Scientific investigator, necessity of,

91.
Sequence, 69-70.

determining of, 84.
Shaler, "Man and the Earth," i.

work of, i.

"Shop Management," 56.
Short men, selection of work for, 36.
Singing, stimulus of, 48.
Size, 36.

relation of motions to, 36.

selection of men according to, 36.
Size of unit moved, 54-56.

determining of, 54.

relation to economy of, 54.
Skill, 36-38.

acquiring of, 37.

Small jobs, selection of men for, 23.
"Soldiering," evils of, 29.
Special fatigue eliminating devices,

56-58.
Speed, 84-85.

advantages of, 84.

habit of, 84.

importance of, 84.

relation to output of, 84.
"Standard conditions," relation of

output to, 43.

Standard length of motions, 80.
Standard methods, utilizing mo-
mentum in, 78.

Standard motions, aid of standard
appliances toward, 45.

forming habits of, 37.

necessity for, 37.

necessity for standard tools with,

59-

Standard practice, benefits of, 42.
derivation of, 91.

INDEX

Standard tools, necessity for, 80.
Standardizing the trades, future

work in, 94.
need for, 93, 95, 96.
Subclassifying the trades, need for,

95-
Surroundings, 58.

relation to standard practice of, 91.
relation of output to, 58.
specifications in instruction cards

on, 58.

standardizing of,_58.
variables of, 43.

Tall men, selection of work for, 36.
Taylor, F. W., data on "rest," 25.

laws of management, 4.

separating planning from per-
forming by, 73.

"Shop Management," 56.

wonderful work of, 94.
Temperament, 38-40.

effect on output of, 40.
Temperature, importance of regula-
tion of, 49.

The first steps, 102-110.
"Three Months in Peonage," 48.
Time study observations, making
of, 92.

using of, 92.
Tools, 59-62.

bureau of testing of, 60.

hand, 60.

"handiness" no just test of, 60.

importance to apprentices of
proper, 59.

influence upon output of, 59.

necessity for standard, 59.

necessity of providing proper, 59.

rating as motion savers of, 60.

relation to standard motions of , 59.

relation to standard practice of, 91.

Tools, standard patterns of, 60.

standard sizes of, 60.

testing stations for, 61.
Trades, necessity for study of, 99.

reclassifying of, 73.

standardizing of, 93.
Trades school, methods of, 98.
Training, 40-41.

definition of, 40.

effect on output of, 40.

necessary scope of, 41.

Ultimate methods, definition of, 93.

Ultimate system, place of motion
study in, 4.

Union rules, 62-63.

hindrance to standardizing mo-
tions of, 62.

U. S. Bureau of Standardization of
Mechanical Trades, 98.

U. S. government, work to be done
by, 95-

Value of charts, 87-94.
Variables, definition of, 6.

difficulty in separating, 85.

difficulty of enumerating the, 87.

divisions of, 6.

incompleteness of list of, 85.

list of, 6.

method of study of, 7.

necessity for application of, 9.

of the motion, 65-85.
field of, 65.

of the surroundings, 43-64.
equipment and tools, 6.

of the worker, 6, 10-42.
definition of, 41.

study, on long jobs, of, 85.

study, on short jobs, of, 85.

test for study of, 8.
Ventilating, 49-50.

effect on clothing of, 50.

INDEX

Waste, elimination of, 73.

in bricklaying, 2.

of motions, 2.

prevalence of, i.

Shaler's book on, i.

utilization of, 2.
Weight of unit moved, 63-64.

elements of, 63.

relation to fatigue of, 63.

standardizing of, 64.
Welfare Department, work of, 33,
34-

Work accomplished, 86.
Work, arrangement of, 77.

division of, 74.
Work to be done, magnitude of, 86-

87.
"Work, Wages, and Profits," H. L.

Gantt's book on, 33.
Worker, variables of, 10-42.
Written alphabet, standardizing of,

99-

Written language, need for stand-
ardizing of, 101.

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Full text of "Motion study, a method for increasing the efficiency of the workman"

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